The use of war elephants in military conflicts has been well documented in Asia and certain regions of the Near East since antiquity. However, their appearance in Western medieval sources is much later. This raises the question: were war elephants actually employed during the Crusades?
There is no definitive proof that Muslim armies used war elephants in battle, but the frequency of their representation in medieval European sources suggests it was likely. European sources depict highly detailed scenes, including elaborate towers constructed on elephants, complete with intricate details of saddles and harnesses. However, these artistic representations do not necessarily confirm historical military use, as they often depict elephants carrying three to more than ten soldiers, making their direct role in combat questionable.
Prior to the Crusades, Western sources were already aware that the Persians and Indians used war elephants equipped with howdahs—wooden towers placed on their backs to transport archers or officers. This knowledge could have reached the Crusaders through merchants, travellers, and Arabic sources.
Frederick II’s Elephant and Its Uses
The Cremona elephant as depicted in the Chronica maiora, Part II, Parker Library, MS 16, fol. 151v
The Crusades also provided Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II with the opportunity to acquire an elephant in the Holy Land, which was later used during the a celebratory march in Cremona in 1237. However, there is nothing to indicate that Frederick’s elephant was a war elephant; it may have been simply an elephant used for work, such as pulling a chariot. All we know is that it was present near a city during wartime, and therefore, it is considered a war elephant. Its usage, however, was likely more practical than military, serving purposes other than on the battlefield.
Early Iconographic Representations
British Library, Royal MS 12 F XIII, fol. 11r
While the presence of war elephants in Muslim armies at the end of the twelfth century appears to be attested, their emergence in Western iconographic representations around the same period is equally significant. The Third Crusade marks the beginning of a series of illustrated manuscripts depicting elephants in military contexts. One of the most notable examples is the Rochester Bestiary (British Library, Royal MS 12 F XIII, fol. 11r), dating from the early 13th century, which depicts an elephant with a howdah carrying warriors. This suggests that the idea of elephants as war animals was sufficiently known in the West to be incorporated into bestiaries.
Morgan MS M.81 fol. 23r
Another example comes from an earlier bestiary predating 1187, the Morgan Bestiary (MS M.81, fol. 23r), which portrays an elephant in a military setting. These representations may indicate a theoretical awareness of the use of elephants in warfare long before their actual appearance on the battlefields of the Crusades.
Why the Crusaders Did Not Use War Elephants
The absence of war elephants in Crusader armies can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, the evolution of combat styles among both regional powers and the Crusaders reflects a shift in strategy. The rigid formations and spear-based tactics of Hellenistic warfare had long been abandoned in favour of mobility. Warfare in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was dominated by cavalry manoeuvres, mounted archers, and agile light infantry.
Muslim forces favoured swift cavalry and mounted archers while also employing heavy cavalry in the form of Mamluks and Sipahi Turks. The Crusaders, by contrast, relied on the power of their knights and a combination of heavily armoured and light infantry.
BAV Pal.lat. 413 fol. 28r
Moreover, from the time of Richard the Lionheart onwards, the Crusaders had developed a specific crusading economy, including a sophisticated system for transporting horses by sea, using specialised ships. Their entire strategy was centred around the horse, making a change in mounts impractical. Western warhorses already struggled with mobility against the faster Arabian horses and the hit-and-run tactics of mounted archers. The heavy Western chargers were at a disadvantage against these mobile tactics.
Additionally, the Crusades were characterised by extensive siege warfare and fortifications. In such a context, elephants were impractical and vulnerable to siege weapons. The idea that North African rulers, such as the Almoravids or the Andalusian Caliphate, might have employed elephants can also be dismissed. Not only had the North African elephant population declined significantly since the time of Carthage and Rome, but Arab-Berber military strategies also favoured speed and manoeuvrability, making war elephants ill-suited for their needs.
Beyond their high cost and the difficulty of training them, elephants also posed significant risks on the battlefield. When panicked, they could trample indiscriminately, causing heavy casualties even among their own troops.
The Challenges of Using Elephants in Warfare
Within the European and Near Eastern theatre of war, the effectiveness of war elephants remains questionable. While formidable, elephants were vulnerable to siege weaponry and skirmishing tactics. Moreover, their presence was not always advantageous: if they panicked, they could turn on their own ranks, causing unintended losses.
Nevertheless, their psychological impact should not be underestimated. For European warriors unaccustomed to such creatures, the sight of a war elephant could instil confusion and fear within their ranks.
Real Encounters or Lasting Legends?
Although the use of war elephants during the Crusades remained marginal, several historical and iconographic sources suggest that they were occasionally employed, particularly during the Third Crusade. Their presence on the battlefield marked a turning point in Western perceptions of Muslim armies and contributed to the fascination with the Orient and its military marvels.
While their military impact was limited, their role in the medieval imagination was substantial, as evidenced by their presence in Crusader iconography and literature. Given the growing number of depictions of elephants from the Third Crusade onwards, it is highly probable that European crusaders encountered war elephants firsthand. These encounters could have taken place either in the Holy Land or through increasing contacts with the Mongols, whose interactions with Western powers intensified in the twelfth and especially the thirteenth century.
A battle between Alexander and Porus with elephants, in Quintus Curtius Rufus. Historia Alexandri magni – British Library Burney MS 169, fol. 165v
It is also significant that, in medieval representations, the elephant remained closely associated with antiquity rather than contemporary warfare. It was often depicted in scenes relating to the military campaigns of Alexander the Great or biblical themes, notably the account of Eleazar Maccabeus in 1 Maccabees (6:31–46). This suggests that, despite potential battlefield encounters, medieval Europeans continued to perceive elephants through a historical or symbolic lens rather than as a practical element of contemporary warfare.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.
By Lorris Chevalier
The use of war elephants in military conflicts has been well documented in Asia and certain regions of the Near East since antiquity. However, their appearance in Western medieval sources is much later. This raises the question: were war elephants actually employed during the Crusades?
There is no definitive proof that Muslim armies used war elephants in battle, but the frequency of their representation in medieval European sources suggests it was likely. European sources depict highly detailed scenes, including elaborate towers constructed on elephants, complete with intricate details of saddles and harnesses. However, these artistic representations do not necessarily confirm historical military use, as they often depict elephants carrying three to more than ten soldiers, making their direct role in combat questionable.
Prior to the Crusades, Western sources were already aware that the Persians and Indians used war elephants equipped with howdahs—wooden towers placed on their backs to transport archers or officers. This knowledge could have reached the Crusaders through merchants, travellers, and Arabic sources.
Frederick II’s Elephant and Its Uses
The Crusades also provided Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II with the opportunity to acquire an elephant in the Holy Land, which was later used during the a celebratory march in Cremona in 1237. However, there is nothing to indicate that Frederick’s elephant was a war elephant; it may have been simply an elephant used for work, such as pulling a chariot. All we know is that it was present near a city during wartime, and therefore, it is considered a war elephant. Its usage, however, was likely more practical than military, serving purposes other than on the battlefield.
Early Iconographic Representations
While the presence of war elephants in Muslim armies at the end of the twelfth century appears to be attested, their emergence in Western iconographic representations around the same period is equally significant. The Third Crusade marks the beginning of a series of illustrated manuscripts depicting elephants in military contexts. One of the most notable examples is the Rochester Bestiary (British Library, Royal MS 12 F XIII, fol. 11r), dating from the early 13th century, which depicts an elephant with a howdah carrying warriors. This suggests that the idea of elephants as war animals was sufficiently known in the West to be incorporated into bestiaries.
Another example comes from an earlier bestiary predating 1187, the Morgan Bestiary (MS M.81, fol. 23r), which portrays an elephant in a military setting. These representations may indicate a theoretical awareness of the use of elephants in warfare long before their actual appearance on the battlefields of the Crusades.
Why the Crusaders Did Not Use War Elephants
The absence of war elephants in Crusader armies can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, the evolution of combat styles among both regional powers and the Crusaders reflects a shift in strategy. The rigid formations and spear-based tactics of Hellenistic warfare had long been abandoned in favour of mobility. Warfare in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was dominated by cavalry manoeuvres, mounted archers, and agile light infantry.
Muslim forces favoured swift cavalry and mounted archers while also employing heavy cavalry in the form of Mamluks and Sipahi Turks. The Crusaders, by contrast, relied on the power of their knights and a combination of heavily armoured and light infantry.
Moreover, from the time of Richard the Lionheart onwards, the Crusaders had developed a specific crusading economy, including a sophisticated system for transporting horses by sea, using specialised ships. Their entire strategy was centred around the horse, making a change in mounts impractical. Western warhorses already struggled with mobility against the faster Arabian horses and the hit-and-run tactics of mounted archers. The heavy Western chargers were at a disadvantage against these mobile tactics.
Additionally, the Crusades were characterised by extensive siege warfare and fortifications. In such a context, elephants were impractical and vulnerable to siege weapons. The idea that North African rulers, such as the Almoravids or the Andalusian Caliphate, might have employed elephants can also be dismissed. Not only had the North African elephant population declined significantly since the time of Carthage and Rome, but Arab-Berber military strategies also favoured speed and manoeuvrability, making war elephants ill-suited for their needs.
Beyond their high cost and the difficulty of training them, elephants also posed significant risks on the battlefield. When panicked, they could trample indiscriminately, causing heavy casualties even among their own troops.
The Challenges of Using Elephants in Warfare
Within the European and Near Eastern theatre of war, the effectiveness of war elephants remains questionable. While formidable, elephants were vulnerable to siege weaponry and skirmishing tactics. Moreover, their presence was not always advantageous: if they panicked, they could turn on their own ranks, causing unintended losses.
Nevertheless, their psychological impact should not be underestimated. For European warriors unaccustomed to such creatures, the sight of a war elephant could instil confusion and fear within their ranks.
Real Encounters or Lasting Legends?
Although the use of war elephants during the Crusades remained marginal, several historical and iconographic sources suggest that they were occasionally employed, particularly during the Third Crusade. Their presence on the battlefield marked a turning point in Western perceptions of Muslim armies and contributed to the fascination with the Orient and its military marvels.
While their military impact was limited, their role in the medieval imagination was substantial, as evidenced by their presence in Crusader iconography and literature. Given the growing number of depictions of elephants from the Third Crusade onwards, it is highly probable that European crusaders encountered war elephants firsthand. These encounters could have taken place either in the Holy Land or through increasing contacts with the Mongols, whose interactions with Western powers intensified in the twelfth and especially the thirteenth century.
It is also significant that, in medieval representations, the elephant remained closely associated with antiquity rather than contemporary warfare. It was often depicted in scenes relating to the military campaigns of Alexander the Great or biblical themes, notably the account of Eleazar Maccabeus in 1 Maccabees (6:31–46). This suggests that, despite potential battlefield encounters, medieval Europeans continued to perceive elephants through a historical or symbolic lens rather than as a practical element of contemporary warfare.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.
Click here to read more from Lorris Chevalier
Top Image: BnF MS Français 14969 fol. 60v
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