Poison held a powerful and dangerous place in the Middle Ages. From medieval medicine and royal courts to myths and religious texts, it was feared, studied, and weaponised. This article explores how poison influenced medieval science, politics, and literature—and why it still haunts the imagination today.
Poison in Medieval Medicine: Science, Experimentation, and Epidemics
The medieval approach to poison underwent significant transformations, particularly under the influence of ancient texts and Arabic translations. J. Chandelier highlights the importance of the fourteenth century in this development, with the integration of toxicology into scholastic medicine by authors such as Avicenna, who was the first to allocate a specific place to poisons within his theoretical framework. Avicenna introduced fundamental concepts such as the “specific form” and the universal nature of poison while asserting that its study relied more on experience than theoretical principles—an idea that would leave a lasting mark on medical thought.
Figures like Pietro d’Abano († c. 1316), who linked the origin of poisons to the stars, and Cristoforo degli Onesti († 1392), author of the Problemata de venenis, developed precise theories on the effects of toxins and their relationship with antidotes. The increased interest in poisons during the fourteenth century was partly due to major epidemics, particularly the Black Death, which fueled speculation about the connection between venoms and disease. Poison thus acquired a conceptual autonomy that exceeded its mere criminal use.
Poison and Power in the Middle Ages: Political Intrigue and Assassination
The use of poison as a political weapon dates back to antiquity, but it gained particular prominence at the end of the Middle Ages. Examining the regions where poison played a major role reveals several emblematic cases. In Sicily, the figure of Adelaide del Vasto, Countess of Sicily and Queen of Jerusalem, is portrayed unfavourably by Orderic Vitalis, particularly due to her alleged involvement in poisoning cases. Historian B. Soustre de Condat identifies Robert of Burgundy as one of her potential victims.
Woman Dispensing Poison, from the Legend of Saint Germain of Paris, MET 1973.262.2
Medieval Spain, particularly the court of the Trastámaras, provides another example of political poisoning. F. Ramírez highlights the frequent accusations of poisoning in Castilian power struggles, which aligns with a general trend in European monarchies at the twilight of the Middle Ages. Poison was perceived as a tool of betrayal and a subtle means of neutralising opponents.
In Sweden, where elective monarchy made the use of poison more complex as a dynastic tool, venenatio took on a more symbolic meaning. As C. Péneau indicates, Saint Bridget used it in her writings as a propaganda weapon against her enemies. The National Law of 1442 recognised the crime of poisoning and linked it to magical practices, reinforcing the traditional association between poison, sorcery, and femininity.
Poisoning also became a pretext for eliminating influential figures. The case of Jacques Cœur is a striking example: accused of poisoning Agnès Sorel, the favourite of Charles VII, he fell from grace in a context where poison served as much to discredit as to eliminate. P. Prétou suggests that this accusation, based on a symbolic association between poison, counterfeit money, and alchemy, was used to legitimise the purge, conducted by prosecutor Dauvet, against the kingdom’s “toxic finances.”
Poison in Medieval Literature: Myths, Legends, and Symbolism
In this 15th-century manuscript, Alexander and his queen at table, and again in the foreground with a feather in his throat after being poisoned – Peniarth 481D
The presence of poison in medieval literature is omnipresent and often morally ambiguous. The episode of Alexander the Great’s alleged poisoning, analysed by H. Bellon, illustrates how venenum was used to interpret the downfall of great historical figures. Did Alexander die in disgrace, poisoned by his close circle, or in the glory of an invincible warrior’s end? This literary motif was adapted in the medieval context, notably to explain the death of Emperor Henry VII in 1313.
In Scandinavian literature, poison is often associated with runes and pagan rituals. The image of a poisoned vessel shattering under the influence of a prayer or sacred sign exemplifies the confrontation between paganism and Christianity. This mystical aspect reinforces the perception of poison as a supernatural and insidious weapon.
Far from being merely an instrument of death, poison in the Middle Ages was an object of scholarly reflection, a political tool, and a recurring literary motif. From scholastic medicine to court intrigues and mythical narratives, it serves as a fascinating lens through which to analyse the cultural dynamics of the period. Rather than disappearing with the end of the Middle Ages, the figure of poison persisted across time, maintaining a prominent place in the collective imagination.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.
By Lorris Chevalier
Poison held a powerful and dangerous place in the Middle Ages. From medieval medicine and royal courts to myths and religious texts, it was feared, studied, and weaponised. This article explores how poison influenced medieval science, politics, and literature—and why it still haunts the imagination today.
Poison in Medieval Medicine: Science, Experimentation, and Epidemics
The medieval approach to poison underwent significant transformations, particularly under the influence of ancient texts and Arabic translations. J. Chandelier highlights the importance of the fourteenth century in this development, with the integration of toxicology into scholastic medicine by authors such as Avicenna, who was the first to allocate a specific place to poisons within his theoretical framework. Avicenna introduced fundamental concepts such as the “specific form” and the universal nature of poison while asserting that its study relied more on experience than theoretical principles—an idea that would leave a lasting mark on medical thought.
Figures like Pietro d’Abano († c. 1316), who linked the origin of poisons to the stars, and Cristoforo degli Onesti († 1392), author of the Problemata de venenis, developed precise theories on the effects of toxins and their relationship with antidotes. The increased interest in poisons during the fourteenth century was partly due to major epidemics, particularly the Black Death, which fueled speculation about the connection between venoms and disease. Poison thus acquired a conceptual autonomy that exceeded its mere criminal use.
Poison and Power in the Middle Ages: Political Intrigue and Assassination
The use of poison as a political weapon dates back to antiquity, but it gained particular prominence at the end of the Middle Ages. Examining the regions where poison played a major role reveals several emblematic cases. In Sicily, the figure of Adelaide del Vasto, Countess of Sicily and Queen of Jerusalem, is portrayed unfavourably by Orderic Vitalis, particularly due to her alleged involvement in poisoning cases. Historian B. Soustre de Condat identifies Robert of Burgundy as one of her potential victims.
Medieval Spain, particularly the court of the Trastámaras, provides another example of political poisoning. F. Ramírez highlights the frequent accusations of poisoning in Castilian power struggles, which aligns with a general trend in European monarchies at the twilight of the Middle Ages. Poison was perceived as a tool of betrayal and a subtle means of neutralising opponents.
In Sweden, where elective monarchy made the use of poison more complex as a dynastic tool, venenatio took on a more symbolic meaning. As C. Péneau indicates, Saint Bridget used it in her writings as a propaganda weapon against her enemies. The National Law of 1442 recognised the crime of poisoning and linked it to magical practices, reinforcing the traditional association between poison, sorcery, and femininity.
Poisoning also became a pretext for eliminating influential figures. The case of Jacques Cœur is a striking example: accused of poisoning Agnès Sorel, the favourite of Charles VII, he fell from grace in a context where poison served as much to discredit as to eliminate. P. Prétou suggests that this accusation, based on a symbolic association between poison, counterfeit money, and alchemy, was used to legitimise the purge, conducted by prosecutor Dauvet, against the kingdom’s “toxic finances.”
Poison in Medieval Literature: Myths, Legends, and Symbolism
The presence of poison in medieval literature is omnipresent and often morally ambiguous. The episode of Alexander the Great’s alleged poisoning, analysed by H. Bellon, illustrates how venenum was used to interpret the downfall of great historical figures. Did Alexander die in disgrace, poisoned by his close circle, or in the glory of an invincible warrior’s end? This literary motif was adapted in the medieval context, notably to explain the death of Emperor Henry VII in 1313.
In Scandinavian literature, poison is often associated with runes and pagan rituals. The image of a poisoned vessel shattering under the influence of a prayer or sacred sign exemplifies the confrontation between paganism and Christianity. This mystical aspect reinforces the perception of poison as a supernatural and insidious weapon.
Far from being merely an instrument of death, poison in the Middle Ages was an object of scholarly reflection, a political tool, and a recurring literary motif. From scholastic medicine to court intrigues and mythical narratives, it serves as a fascinating lens through which to analyse the cultural dynamics of the period. Rather than disappearing with the end of the Middle Ages, the figure of poison persisted across time, maintaining a prominent place in the collective imagination.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.
Click here to read more from Lorris Chevalier
Further Readings:
Franck Collard, “Des poisons au Moyen Âge,” Cahiers de recherches médiévales, Vol. 17 (2009)
Top Image: The death of Queen Rosamond and Squire Melchis with an attendant bearing the cup with poisoned wine – British Library MS Harley 1766, f.222
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