Musical instruments frequently appear in European art from the Middle Ages, offering valuable insight into the sounds of the time. These visual depictions reveal how music accompanied both festive celebrations and solemn occasions. From lively scenes of dancing peasants to angelic figures in sacred settings, instruments like flutes and harps are often shown in use. Some of these instruments look remarkably similar to their modern counterparts and are easily recognisable today. Others, however, are more obscure—once common in the medieval world, they have since fallen out of use or evolved into new forms.
In the sections below, we explore ten musical instruments that were played across medieval Europe, highlighting their appearance, use, and cultural significance.
Medieval Portative Organ
Francesco Landini and his portative organ from the Squarcialupi Codex
While today, some people experience the glorious sounds of the organ on a regular basis when attending church services or other ecclesiastical events, the majestic instrument most are familiar with is far more overpowering than the popular miniature instrument to which this section is dedicated. During the Middle Ages, in addition to cathedral organs, there were also much smaller versions that were largely associated with secular music-making. Their compact size allowed for music to be performed in both public spaces and private residences. Among these smaller organs was the portative organ and, as its name suggests, it was small enough to be carried.
Unlike larger cathedral organs, which required multiple people to operate – one to play the keyboard and others to work the bellows – the portative organ was small enough to be played by a single musician. The performer could either position the instrument on their knee while seated or hold it while standing. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the instrument was sometimes secured to the performer with a strap, allowing them to move freely while playing. To produce sound, musicians pumped the portative organ’s small bellows – situated on the instrument’s back – with one hand while playing the keyboard with the other. The fourteenth-century Italian composer Francesco Landini played and composed for the portative organ and was depicted holding one in the Squarcialupi Codex.
Positive Organ
Positive organ shown in the tapestry “Hearing” from the Lady and the Unicorn tapestry collection
Like the portative organ, the positive organ was relatively small and easily transported; however, it was not so compact that it could be played by a single musician. The instrument was often placed on a tabletop (or could be free-standing) and required at least two people to produce sound. One musician played the keyboard with both hands, while a second person operated the bellows on the back of the instrument.
A famous depiction of the positive organ appears in The Lady and the Unicorn tapestries, in the image known as “Hearing.” In this tapestry, a positive organ is placed on a table in the centre of the image. A noble lady plays the organ’s keyboard while another woman pumps the bellows behind the instrument.
Psaltery
Psaltery played by an angel from the Reliquary of Saint Ursula by Hans Memling. Bruges, Saint John’s Hospital Museum
From the early Middle Ages, the psaltery was depicted in European artwork being played by both laypeople and religious figures and remained extremely popular until the end of the fifteenth century. It may have been introduced to Europe from the Middle East via what is now Turkey. The instrument consisted of a wooden box that was commonly triangular, square, trapezoid, or t-shaped – the last being called a “pig-snout” due to its resemblance to the animal’s head.
Several parallel strings, made of gut or metals such as silver, iron, or brass, were stretched across the box and fastened on each side by metal pins or wooden pegs. Musicians played the psaltery by placing it over their knees or holding it to their chest. The strings could be plucked using a plectrum or with fingers.
Clavicymbalum
Clavicymbalum. Stained glass from Notre-Dame de Caudebec en Caux
A musical instrument of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, the clavicymbalum (also called clavisimbalum or clavicembalum) was a small, portable plucked-string keyboard instrument and an early ancestor of the harpsichord. It closely resembled early harpsichords, apart from its very small size.
It can be traced back to 1397, when a physician and astrologer named Hermann Poll stated that he had created a new musical instrument called the “clavicembalum.” In the fifteenth century, Henri Arnaut de Zwolle included the same instrument – which he called the “clavisimbalum” – in a treatise dedicated to musical instrument construction.
In terms of design, the clavicymbalum was developed from the psaltery by the addition of a keyboard. When pressed, each key plucked the instrument’s strings, removing the need for fingers or a hand-held plectrum. Unlike more modern keyboard instruments such as the harpsichord and piano, the clavicymbalum lacked dampers, allowing its notes to ring out instead of being cut short. The clavicymbalum is depicted in a stained-glass window at Notre-Dame de Caudebec-en-Caux, where a musician is shown playing the instrument.
Organistrum
Organistrum played by two musicians. Santiago de Compostela cathedral in Spain
The organistrum was the much larger ancestor of the more well-known hurdy-gurdy – a pear-shaped string instrument played by turning a crank. The crank turned a wheel that bowed the strings and produced a drone (or bourdon). With the other hand, the performer could play a melody using a keyboard attached to the instrument.
Similarly, the organistrum produced a drone using a wooden wheel turned by a crank, with melodies played on a keyboard. However, the organistrum was generally too large to be played by one person. Measuring between 1.5 and 2 metres long, it typically required two people: one to crank the wheel and one to operate the keys. The instrument was placed across the laps of both musicians, who sat side by side.
In the twelfth century, the organistrum was often used in sacred contexts and monastic schools to accompany singing and aid musical instruction. By the thirteenth century, its smaller relative, the hurdy-gurdy, became a popular instrument for secular music. The organistrum is depicted in a medieval sculpture found in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Spain.
Vielle
Vielle depicted in the Cantigas de Santa Maria
The vielle was a medieval fiddle and one of the most popular instruments of the Middle Ages. It was played in various social settings, from religious celebrations to secular festivities, where it accompanied dance and song. The vielle remained in use until the late fifteenth century, when it began to be replaced by newer instruments of the violin family.
In appearance, the vielle’s body resembled an oval-shaped version of a violin or viola. Like those modern instruments, it was played with a bow – although vielle bows were curved, unlike the relatively straight bows of modern violins and violas. The vielle had five gut strings, typically made from the intestines of sheep or wolves. It was held up to the shoulder, though it could also be played on the lap or between the legs like a modern cello.
Rebec
Rebec depicted in “Virgin Among Virgins” by Gerard David
Like the vielle, the rebec was a bowed string instrument, but it had a distinct appearance. Its body was much slimmer and resembled a narrow pear or boat. The rebec typically had three gut strings, fewer than the vielle’s five.
The rebec evolved from the Arab instrument known as the rebab and appeared in Europe around the late tenth century. While the rebab was played resting on the knees, the European rebec was held up to the chest or neck.
Pipe and Tabor
Pipe and Tabor depicted in the Luttrell Psalter
Although the pipe and tabor were two separate instruments, they were often played together by a single musician and were mostly used to accompany dancing. The pipe was a type of flute, typically with three holes (though sometimes four), held vertically and played with one hand. The tabor was a small drum, hung from the shoulder or wrist on the same side as the pipe. The other hand struck the drum with a stick.
Shawm
Shawm depicted in the Cantigas de Santa Maria
The shawm, a double-reed woodwind instrument with a bell-shaped end, is the ancestor of the modern oboe. Made from wood such as maple, the shawm produced a loud, piercing sound that made it especially useful for outdoor performances. It was widely used throughout the Middle Ages for dancing, royal events, and other public occasions, and its popularity continued into the Renaissance.
Carillon
Carillon depicted in the Cantigas de Santa Maria
The carillon was a collection of bells arranged from smallest to largest and hung together within a case. Each bell could be struck with hammers by a performer, producing clear, resonant tones. In some cases, the bells were sounded by clappers operated with pulled ropes.
If you would like to learn more about the history of these instruments as well as other interesting topics on medieval music, we invite you to register for our course Introduction to Medieval Music which will begin on June 1, 2025, and will be instructed by musicologist Sonja Maurer-Dass.
Sonja Maurer-Dass is a Canadian musicologist and harpsichordist. She is a PhD candidate in Musicology at The University of Western, researching 18th-century French musical exoticism in the operas of Jean-Philippe Rameau. She holds a master’s degree in Musicology specializing in late medieval English choral music from York University (Toronto, Canada) and has written for The Medieval Magazine and Ancient History Magazine.
Top Image: Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, The Geese Book, M. 905
By Sonja Maurer-Dass
Musical instruments frequently appear in European art from the Middle Ages, offering valuable insight into the sounds of the time. These visual depictions reveal how music accompanied both festive celebrations and solemn occasions. From lively scenes of dancing peasants to angelic figures in sacred settings, instruments like flutes and harps are often shown in use. Some of these instruments look remarkably similar to their modern counterparts and are easily recognisable today. Others, however, are more obscure—once common in the medieval world, they have since fallen out of use or evolved into new forms.
In the sections below, we explore ten musical instruments that were played across medieval Europe, highlighting their appearance, use, and cultural significance.
Medieval Portative Organ
While today, some people experience the glorious sounds of the organ on a regular basis when attending church services or other ecclesiastical events, the majestic instrument most are familiar with is far more overpowering than the popular miniature instrument to which this section is dedicated. During the Middle Ages, in addition to cathedral organs, there were also much smaller versions that were largely associated with secular music-making. Their compact size allowed for music to be performed in both public spaces and private residences. Among these smaller organs was the portative organ and, as its name suggests, it was small enough to be carried.
Unlike larger cathedral organs, which required multiple people to operate – one to play the keyboard and others to work the bellows – the portative organ was small enough to be played by a single musician. The performer could either position the instrument on their knee while seated or hold it while standing. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the instrument was sometimes secured to the performer with a strap, allowing them to move freely while playing. To produce sound, musicians pumped the portative organ’s small bellows – situated on the instrument’s back – with one hand while playing the keyboard with the other. The fourteenth-century Italian composer Francesco Landini played and composed for the portative organ and was depicted holding one in the Squarcialupi Codex.
Positive Organ
Like the portative organ, the positive organ was relatively small and easily transported; however, it was not so compact that it could be played by a single musician. The instrument was often placed on a tabletop (or could be free-standing) and required at least two people to produce sound. One musician played the keyboard with both hands, while a second person operated the bellows on the back of the instrument.
A famous depiction of the positive organ appears in The Lady and the Unicorn tapestries, in the image known as “Hearing.” In this tapestry, a positive organ is placed on a table in the centre of the image. A noble lady plays the organ’s keyboard while another woman pumps the bellows behind the instrument.
Psaltery
From the early Middle Ages, the psaltery was depicted in European artwork being played by both laypeople and religious figures and remained extremely popular until the end of the fifteenth century. It may have been introduced to Europe from the Middle East via what is now Turkey. The instrument consisted of a wooden box that was commonly triangular, square, trapezoid, or t-shaped – the last being called a “pig-snout” due to its resemblance to the animal’s head.
Several parallel strings, made of gut or metals such as silver, iron, or brass, were stretched across the box and fastened on each side by metal pins or wooden pegs. Musicians played the psaltery by placing it over their knees or holding it to their chest. The strings could be plucked using a plectrum or with fingers.
Clavicymbalum
A musical instrument of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, the clavicymbalum (also called clavisimbalum or clavicembalum) was a small, portable plucked-string keyboard instrument and an early ancestor of the harpsichord. It closely resembled early harpsichords, apart from its very small size.
It can be traced back to 1397, when a physician and astrologer named Hermann Poll stated that he had created a new musical instrument called the “clavicembalum.” In the fifteenth century, Henri Arnaut de Zwolle included the same instrument – which he called the “clavisimbalum” – in a treatise dedicated to musical instrument construction.
In terms of design, the clavicymbalum was developed from the psaltery by the addition of a keyboard. When pressed, each key plucked the instrument’s strings, removing the need for fingers or a hand-held plectrum. Unlike more modern keyboard instruments such as the harpsichord and piano, the clavicymbalum lacked dampers, allowing its notes to ring out instead of being cut short. The clavicymbalum is depicted in a stained-glass window at Notre-Dame de Caudebec-en-Caux, where a musician is shown playing the instrument.
Organistrum
The organistrum was the much larger ancestor of the more well-known hurdy-gurdy – a pear-shaped string instrument played by turning a crank. The crank turned a wheel that bowed the strings and produced a drone (or bourdon). With the other hand, the performer could play a melody using a keyboard attached to the instrument.
Similarly, the organistrum produced a drone using a wooden wheel turned by a crank, with melodies played on a keyboard. However, the organistrum was generally too large to be played by one person. Measuring between 1.5 and 2 metres long, it typically required two people: one to crank the wheel and one to operate the keys. The instrument was placed across the laps of both musicians, who sat side by side.
In the twelfth century, the organistrum was often used in sacred contexts and monastic schools to accompany singing and aid musical instruction. By the thirteenth century, its smaller relative, the hurdy-gurdy, became a popular instrument for secular music. The organistrum is depicted in a medieval sculpture found in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Spain.
Vielle
The vielle was a medieval fiddle and one of the most popular instruments of the Middle Ages. It was played in various social settings, from religious celebrations to secular festivities, where it accompanied dance and song. The vielle remained in use until the late fifteenth century, when it began to be replaced by newer instruments of the violin family.
In appearance, the vielle’s body resembled an oval-shaped version of a violin or viola. Like those modern instruments, it was played with a bow – although vielle bows were curved, unlike the relatively straight bows of modern violins and violas. The vielle had five gut strings, typically made from the intestines of sheep or wolves. It was held up to the shoulder, though it could also be played on the lap or between the legs like a modern cello.
Rebec
Like the vielle, the rebec was a bowed string instrument, but it had a distinct appearance. Its body was much slimmer and resembled a narrow pear or boat. The rebec typically had three gut strings, fewer than the vielle’s five.
The rebec evolved from the Arab instrument known as the rebab and appeared in Europe around the late tenth century. While the rebab was played resting on the knees, the European rebec was held up to the chest or neck.
Pipe and Tabor
Although the pipe and tabor were two separate instruments, they were often played together by a single musician and were mostly used to accompany dancing. The pipe was a type of flute, typically with three holes (though sometimes four), held vertically and played with one hand. The tabor was a small drum, hung from the shoulder or wrist on the same side as the pipe. The other hand struck the drum with a stick.
Shawm
The shawm, a double-reed woodwind instrument with a bell-shaped end, is the ancestor of the modern oboe. Made from wood such as maple, the shawm produced a loud, piercing sound that made it especially useful for outdoor performances. It was widely used throughout the Middle Ages for dancing, royal events, and other public occasions, and its popularity continued into the Renaissance.
Carillon
The carillon was a collection of bells arranged from smallest to largest and hung together within a case. Each bell could be struck with hammers by a performer, producing clear, resonant tones. In some cases, the bells were sounded by clappers operated with pulled ropes.
If you would like to learn more about the history of these instruments as well as other interesting topics on medieval music, we invite you to register for our course Introduction to Medieval Music which will begin on June 1, 2025, and will be instructed by musicologist Sonja Maurer-Dass.
Sonja Maurer-Dass is a Canadian musicologist and harpsichordist. She is a PhD candidate in Musicology at The University of Western, researching 18th-century French musical exoticism in the operas of Jean-Philippe Rameau. She holds a master’s degree in Musicology specializing in late medieval English choral music from York University (Toronto, Canada) and has written for The Medieval Magazine and Ancient History Magazine.
Top Image: Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, The Geese Book, M. 905
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