25 Medieval Women Who Ruled

The Middle Ages saw countless powerful women who defied expectations and ruled in their own right, whether as queens, empresses or khatuns. Some wielded power through diplomacy, others led armies into battle, and many fought against rivals who sought to undermine their rule. From Byzantine empresses who shaped imperial policy to Mongol regents commanding vast empires and European queens navigating war and succession crises, these women left lasting legacies. Here are 25 medieval women who ruled, proving that leadership was never exclusive to men.

Eleanor of Aquitaine (r. 1137–1204, Duchess of Aquitaine, Queen of France, and Queen of England)

Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the most powerful and influential women of the medieval period, ruling as Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right while also serving as Queen of France (1137–1152) and Queen of England (1154–1189). She married King Louis VII of France but later annulled the marriage and wed Henry II of England, bringing vast lands in France under English control.

Eleanor was a key player in medieval European politics, participating in the Second Crusade, supporting her sons’ rebellion against Henry II, and later serving as regent for her son, Richard the Lionheart, while he was on the Third Crusade. She was also a patron of the arts and courtly culture, influencing literature and governance across Europe. Learn more about her in this episode of The Medieval Podcast

Isabella I of Castile (r. 1474–1504, Kingdom of Castile, Spain)

Isabella I of Castile was one of the most significant rulers in Spanish history, known for her role in uniting Spain through her marriage to Ferdinand II of Aragon. She played a crucial role in the Reconquista, overseeing the conquest of Granada in 1492, which marked the end of Muslim rule in Spain.

Her reign also saw the sponsorship of Christopher Columbus’ voyages, leading to Spain’s rise as a global empire. Though her reign was marked by religious policies such as the Spanish Inquisition, she was a skilled administrator and diplomat who laid the foundation for Spain’s Golden Age. Her marriage to Ferdinand ensured that Castile and Aragon remained united, shaping Spain’s future as a dominant European power. Read more about her in Isabella Of Castile, by Giles Tremlett

Queen Tamar of Georgia (r. 1184–1213)

Queen Tamar of Georgia was one of the most powerful female rulers of the medieval world, presiding over Georgia’s Golden Age. Crowned as co-ruler by her father, she inherited the throne outright upon his death and quickly established her authority by outmaneuvering nobles who doubted her leadership. She expanded Georgia’s borders through military victories, including the conquest of territories in the Caucasus, and strengthened its cultural and economic influence.

Tamar’s reign was marked by prosperity, religious patronage, and diplomatic brilliance, making Georgia a dominant power in the region. She was also the first woman in Georgian history to rule in her own right, earning the title “King of Kings” to reflect her unparalleled status. Her legacy endured long after her death, with later Georgian rulers invoking her as a model of ideal kingship. Read more about her in Royal Imagery in Medieval Georgia, by Antony Eastmond

Queen Margaret I of Denmark (r. 1387–1412, ruled over Denmark, Norway, and Sweden)

Margaret I of Denmark was the architect of the Kalmar Union, uniting Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under her rule, making her one of the most influential monarchs of late medieval Scandinavia. She first ruled as regent for her son, Olaf II, and upon his death, she maneuvered her way into sole leadership, demonstrating exceptional political acumen. She established stability in Scandinavia, bringing together warring factions and setting the stage for the region’s shared monarchy for over a century.

Margaret was known for her ability to manage both domestic and foreign affairs with great diplomacy, balancing the interests of different kingdoms while consolidating royal authority. Though she never officially took the title of queen regnant, her control over the region was absolute, making her one of the most effective rulers in medieval Europe. Read more about her in War, Plague, and the Beginning of the Kalmar Union

Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi of Yemen (r. 1067–1138, ruled independently from 1091)

Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi was a remarkable ruler of Yemen who defied the traditional gender norms of her time by exercising direct political authority. She initially co-ruled with her husband, but after his death, she took full control of the kingdom, becoming the first woman in history to be given the title of “Hujjah” (Proof of God) in Ismaili Islam. She was a highly competent administrator, overseeing economic prosperity, infrastructure projects, and religious scholarship.

Arwa strengthened Yemen’s autonomy and successfully managed relations with both the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the regional tribal factions. She was revered for her intelligence, leadership, and ability to maintain stability in a turbulent era. Even after her death, she was remembered as one of the most capable rulers in the history of the Arabian Peninsula. Read more about her in The Unforgettable Queens of Islam: Succession, Authority, Gender, by Shahla Haeri

Melisende of Jerusalem (r. 1131–1153, ruled as co-ruler and regent until 1161)

Melisende of Jerusalem was one of the most powerful queens of the Crusader states, ruling as queen regnant after the death of her father, Baldwin II. Though she initially shared power with her husband, Fulk of Anjou, she asserted her authority, leading to a tense power struggle. Fulk attempted to sideline her, but Melisende’s allies forced him to recognize her rightful rule, making her one of the rare female rulers in the Latin East.

After Fulk’s death, Melisende ruled as regent for her son, Baldwin III, and effectively governed the Kingdom of Jerusalem through a period of political and military challenges. She was a strong patron of the arts and religious institutions, overseeing the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and fostering a period of cultural growth. Even after Baldwin III came of age, she remained a significant political figure until her death, demonstrating her enduring influence in a male-dominated society. Read more about her in Queens of Jerusalem: The Women Who Dared to Rule, by Katherine Pangonis

Blanche I of Navarre (r. 1425–1441, Navarre)

Blanche I of Navarre inherited the throne after the death of her father, Charles III of Navarre, making her one of the few women to rule an Iberian kingdom in her own right. Though she ruled alongside her husband, John II of Aragon, her reign was fraught with political struggles, particularly as her husband sought greater control over Navarre, sidelining their own children from the succession.

Despite being queen, Blanche’s authority was frequently contested, and she spent much of her reign attempting to balance the interests of Navarre’s nobility with her husband’s ambitions. Tragically, her power was gradually stripped away, and she was eventually imprisoned by her husband, dying under suspicious circumstances. Read more about her in The Queens Regnant of Navarre, by Elena Woodacre

Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705, China, ruled as emperor)

Wu Zetian was the only woman in Chinese history to rule as emperor in her own right. Rising from a concubine to Empress Dowager, she eventually declared herself the founder of the Zhou Dynasty, displacing the Tang Dynasty for over a decade. She was a formidable ruler who strengthened the civil service, promoted Buddhism, and expanded China’s borders.

Despite the controversies surrounding her rise to power, Wu’s reign was marked by effective governance, military success, and economic growth. She remains one of the most powerful female leaders in world history. Read more about her in Wu Zhao: China’s Only Female Emperor, by N. Harry Rothschild

Matilda of Tuscany (r. 1076–1115, Margravine of Tuscany)

Matilda of Tuscany was one of the most powerful feudal rulers of medieval Italy, controlling vast territories in northern and central Italy during a time of intense conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor and the Papacy. A staunch supporter of Pope Gregory VII, she played a crucial role in the Investiture Controversy, famously aiding the pope against Emperor Henry IV.

She is best known for her role in the Walk to Canossa (1077), where she provided Pope Gregory VII refuge in her castle as Henry IV was forced to seek absolution. A skilled military leader, she led armies to defend the Papacy’s interests and remained one of the most independent and politically astute female rulers of her time. Her legacy influenced later struggles between church and state in Italy. Read more about her in The military leadership of Matilda of Canossa, 1046–1115, by David Hay

Irene of Athens (r. 797–802, Byzantine Empress)

Irene of Athens was the first woman to rule the Byzantine Empire in her own right, holding the title of Basileus (Emperor) rather than the traditional title of empress. Originally the wife of Emperor Leo IV, she became regent for their son, Constantine VI, after Leo’s death. However, when Constantine attempted to rule independently, Irene had him deposed and blinded, making her the sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire.

Irene is best known for restoring the veneration of icons, ending decades of Iconoclasm that had divided the empire. She was also a shrewd political player, negotiating a possible marriage alliance with Charlemagne that could have united the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. However, her rule was cut short when she was overthrown in a palace coup in 802 and sent into exile. Despite her downfall, she left a lasting religious and political legacy. Read more about her in Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527-1204, by Lynda Garland

Töregene Khatun (r. 1241–1246, Mongol Empire)

Töregene Khatun was one of the most powerful women of the Mongol Empire, ruling as regent after the death of her husband, Ögedei Khan, in 1241. As Great Khatun, she effectively controlled the vast Mongol domains for five years, making her one of the most influential female rulers in Mongol history. She consolidated power, removed political rivals, and promoted loyal administrators, ensuring her control over the empire’s affairs.

Her rule was marked by diplomatic and economic expansion, and she played a crucial role in selecting her son, Güyük Khan, as the next Great Khan in 1246. Töregene was also a patron of Persian and Chinese scholars, showing the Mongols’ increasing cultural sophistication. Though she ruled in a deeply patriarchal society, Töregene demonstrated the immense political agency that elite Mongol women could wield, shaping the empire’s direction during a pivotal time. Read more about her in The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire, by Jack Weatherford

Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians (r. 911–918, England)

Æthelflæd, the daughter of Alfred the Great, became one of the most formidable rulers of early medieval England. Upon the death of her husband, Æthelred, she took control of Mercia, effectively ruling in her own right. She led military campaigns against Viking strongholds, playing a critical role in the expansion of Anglo-Saxon rule and the eventual unification of England.

Her strategic leadership saw the construction of fortresses (burhs) to defend against Norse invaders, and she successfully recaptured Derby and Leicester from Viking control. Even the Danes of York were prepared to submit to her rule before her untimely death in 918. Æthelflæd was one of the only female rulers in early medieval England to wield both political and military power, securing her place in history as “The Lady of the Mercians.” Read more about her in Early English Queens, 850-1000: Potestas Reginae, by Matthew Firth

Urraca of León and Castile (r. 1109–1126, Spain)

Urraca of León and Castile was the first woman to rule a Christian kingdom in medieval Iberia, inheriting her father’s throne at a time when female rule was widely contested. Despite being married off to Alfonso I of Aragon to strengthen alliances, their union soon dissolved due to bitter conflict. Urraca fiercely resisted his attempts to control her kingdom, leading to a civil war that defined much of her reign.

Even after being sidelined by powerful nobles and facing opposition from the church, Urraca proved to be an effective and independent ruler. She maintained control over Castile, León, and Galicia despite ongoing invasions and internal rebellion. Her reign was one of endurance, proving that women could wield political authority in the medieval Iberian Peninsula. Read more about her in The Kingdom of León-Castilla
under Queen Urraca, 1109-1126, by Bernard F. Reilly

 

Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi of Majapahit (r. 1328–1350, Indonesia)

Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi was a Javanese queen who expanded the power of the Majapahit Empire, laying the foundation for its Golden Age. She assumed the throne after the sudden death of her brother and ruled as regent for her young son, though in practice, she held supreme authority. She appointed Gajah Mada as her chief minister, whose military campaigns expanded the empire’s influence across much of maritime Southeast Asia.

Under her rule, Majapahit became a dominant power in the region, securing trade routes and strengthening internal governance. Tribhuwana’s leadership ensured that her son, Hayam Wuruk, inherited a vast and well-organized empire. Her reign set the stage for one of the most prosperous periods in Indonesian history. Read more about her on Wikipedia.

Jadwiga of Poland (r. 1384–1399, Kingdom of Poland)

Jadwiga of Poland was crowned as “King” of Poland at just ten years old, emphasizing her sovereign authority despite being a woman. Her reign marked a turning point in Polish history, as she facilitated the Union of Poland and Lithuania through her marriage to Jogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło), forming the foundation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Jadwiga was a deeply religious and intellectual ruler, promoting education and charity. She founded the Faculty of Theology at the University of Kraków, which later became the Jagiellonian University, one of Europe’s oldest universities. She was canonized as a saint in 1997 for her devout service and acts of charity, leaving a lasting legacy not just as a ruler but as a cultural and spiritual figure. Read more about her in Queen Jadwiga in history and legend

Empress Suiko of Japan (r. 593–628, Japan)

Empress Suiko was the first recorded female ruler of Japan, ascending the throne during a period of political transition. She played a crucial role in shaping early Japanese statehood, working closely with her regent, Prince Shōtoku, to promote Buddhism and establish Japan’s first constitution.

Her reign saw the adoption of Chinese-style governance structures and diplomatic relations with the Sui Dynasty. She proved that women could rule effectively, setting a precedent for future Japanese empresses. Read more about her in The Cambridge History of Japan, Volume 1

Razia Sultana (r. 1236–1240, Delhi Sultanate, India)

Razia Sultana was the only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, defying both gender and courtly expectations in a male-dominated Islamic empire. Chosen as heir by her father, Sultan Iltutmish, she had to fight to maintain her throne against powerful nobles who resisted female rule. She was known for her intelligence, military skill, and political acumen, often leading her armies in battle.

Razia’s reign, though brief, was groundbreaking as she actively engaged in state affairs without relying on a male guardian or consort. She sought to reform the administration and promote meritocracy, which earned her both admiration and enemies. Ultimately, she was overthrown and killed, but her legacy endured as one of the most remarkable women to have ruled in South Asia. Read more about her in Sultana Raziya of Delhi: Pillar of Women and Queen of the Eras

Joanna of Naples (r. 1343–1382, Kingdom of Naples)

Joanna I of Naples was one of the most fascinating and controversial female rulers of medieval Europe, ascending the throne at just 17 years old. She faced immense political turmoil, including accusations of involvement in the murder of her first husband, Andrew of Hungary, which led to conflicts with Hungary’s rulers.

Despite these challenges, Joanna ruled Naples for nearly four decades, navigating wars, excommunications, and shifting alliances. She was a patron of the arts and played a key role in maintaining Naples as a center of culture and learning. Her reign ended in tragedy when she was captured and murdered by her rival, Charles of Durazzo, but her resilience and political maneuvering ensured that she remains one of the most memorable rulers of her time. Read more about her in The Lady Queen: The Notorious Reign of Joanna I, Queen of Naples, Jerusalem, and Sicily, by Nancy Goldstone

Maria of Sicily (r. 1377–1401, Sicily)

Maria of Sicily became queen at just 15 years old after her father’s death, but her reign was immediately challenged by political factions vying for control over the island. Initially kidnapped and held by nobles who sought to rule through her, Maria later returned to power after marrying Martin of Aragon, solidifying her claim to the throne.

Despite being overshadowed by her husband, Maria retained her royal status and played a key role in stabilizing Sicily, ensuring it remained under the control of the House of Aragon. Her reign is a reminder of the precarious position of female rulers in medieval Europe, as she constantly had to fight to maintain her authority amid external and internal pressures. Read more about her in “In his Custody and Protection”: The Imprisonment and Marriage of Maria, Queen of Sicily

Shajar al-Durr (r. 1250, Egypt, Mamluk Sultanate)

Shajar al-Durr was a pivotal figure in 13th-century Egypt, becoming the first and only female Sultan of Egypt during a period of immense political turmoil. Originally a slave of Turkic origin, she rose to prominence as the wife of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub, the last ruler of the Ayyubid dynasty. Upon his death during the Seventh Crusade, she concealed his passing to maintain stability and orchestrated the successful defense of Egypt against Louis IX of France. Recognizing her leadership, the military elite chose her as Sultana in 1250, making her one of the most powerful women in medieval Islamic history.

Despite her effective rule, Shajar al-Durr faced resistance from the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, who refused to acknowledge a female sultan. To maintain power, she married Aybak, a prominent Mamluk general, but later had him assassinated when he sought another marriage for political gain. This act led to her downfall, and she was ultimately executed by his supporters in 1257. Her brief but transformative rule marked the transition from the Ayyubid dynasty to Mamluk rule, reshaping Egypt’s future. Her legacy endures as one of the most remarkable instances of female sovereignty in the Islamic world. Read more about her in Shajar al-Durr: A Case of Female Sultanate in Medieval Islam

Zoe Porphyrogenita (r. 1028–1050, Byzantine Empress)

Zoe Porphyrogenita was one of the most politically active and controversial Byzantine empresses, ruling for over two decades through multiple marriages and power struggles. Born into the ruling Macedonian dynasty, she inherited her imperial status but was initially sidelined from politics. However, after the death of her father, Constantine VIII, she became co-ruler with her husband, Romanos III, whom she later had deposed and possibly poisoned.

Zoe married twice more, each time elevating her husband to the throne, yet she always remained the true power behind the empire. She ruled briefly as sole empress alongside her sister, Theodora, before her third husband, Constantine IX, took control. Despite palace intrigues and her dramatic personal life, Zoe’s reign saw economic reforms and the continuation of Byzantine artistic achievements, leaving a lasting mark on the empire’s history. Read more about her in Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527-1204, by Lynda Garland

Rudrama Devi (r. 1262–1289, Kakatiya Dynasty, India)

Rudrama Devi was one of the few women to rule a South Indian kingdom in her own right, ascending to the throne after the death of her father, Ganapati Deva. She defied expectations by proving to be an effective military leader, personally leading her troops into battle against rebellious nobles and external threats like the Yadavas and the Delhi Sultanate.

To strengthen her authority, she adopted the title of “Maharaja” (great king) rather than “Maharani” (queen). She successfully maintained her kingdom’s independence, promoted infrastructure development, and supported temple-building projects. Her rule demonstrated that women could lead powerful kingdoms even in militarized societies. Read more about her in Rudrama Devi: The Queen Who Wore A King’s Image

Queen Seondeok of Silla (r. 632–647, Korea)

Queen Seondeok of Silla was the first woman to rule Korea, overseeing one of the most culturally significant periods in the Silla Kingdom’s history. She was a patron of Buddhism and education, commissioning the famous Cheomseongdae Observatory, one of the oldest surviving astronomical observatories in the world.

Despite opposition from conservative factions, she strengthened Silla’s political alliances, particularly with Tang China, laying the groundwork for future territorial expansion. Her reign demonstrated the ability of female rulers to lead effectively, even in a highly patriarchal society. Read more about her in Women in Korean History, by Bae-yong Lee

Matilda, Daughter of Henry I (r. 1141, disputed Empress of England)

Matilda, also known as Empress Matilda, was the rightful heir to the English throne after the death of her father, Henry I, but her cousin, Stephen of Blois, seized power, leading to a prolonged civil war known as The Anarchy (1135–1153). Matilda briefly controlled England in 1141, making her the first woman to claim the English throne in her own right, though she was never officially crowned.

Her struggle for power ultimately secured the future of the Plantagenet dynasty, as her son, Henry II, later became king. Though she never ruled fully as queen, her resilience in fighting for her claim and her political influence in Normandy and England make her a pivotal figure in medieval history. Read more about her in Matilda: Empress, Queen, Warrior, by Catherine Hanley

Mary of Hungary (r. 1382–1395, Hungary and Croatia)

Mary of Hungary was crowned as King of Hungary at just 11 years old after the death of her father, Louis I, making her one of the few women to be officially styled as a king rather than a queen. Though her mother, Elizabeth of Bosnia, acted as regent, Mary’s reign was marred by political instability and rebellion, as factions sought to install a male ruler instead.

Her rule took a tragic turn when her rival, Charles III of Naples, temporarily seized the throne, leading to her mother’s assassination. Though Mary was later restored as ruler, she was never able to fully secure her authority. She died in a mysterious horse-riding accident in 1395, leaving behind a reign that highlighted both the potential and the perils of female kingship in medieval Europe. Read more about her in Queens and Queenship in Medieval Europe

The women on this list ruled in turbulent times, proving that medieval leadership was not solely a male domain. Whether through military conquests, political strategy, or cultural influence, they shaped the course of history and defied expectations of their era. Their legacies continue to inspire, reminding us that power and resilience have never been limited by gender.