Forging documents were powerful tools in the Middle Ages – used to claim authority, discredit rivals, and secure land or privileges. Whether crafted by rulers or monks, these documents shaped history by legitimizing false claims and altering legal and religious landscapes. Some went unchallenged for centuries, leaving a lasting impact on medieval society. Here are ten of the most remarkable forgeries of the Middle Ages.
1. The Donation of Constantine
A 13th-century fresco of Sylvester I and Constantine the Great, showing the purported Donation
The Donation of Constantine is one of the most infamous forgeries in medieval history, granting the Pope supreme authority over the Western Roman Empire. Supposedly issued by Emperor Constantine the Great in the 4th century, the document claimed that he had bestowed vast territorial and political power upon Pope Sylvester I as gratitude for curing him of leprosy. It stated that the Pope was to have dominion over Rome, Italy, and the entire Western Roman Empire, effectively making the papacy a secular authority over vast lands. Throughout the Middle Ages, this forged decree was used to justify the political power of the Papacy, particularly in conflicts between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperors. It played a crucial role in legitimizing the Papal States and strengthening the Church’s influence over European rulers.
Historians now believe the document was created in the 8th century, likely in the court of Pope Stephen II (r. 752–757) as he sought support against the Lombards. The Donation conveniently aligned with the Pope’s need for an alliance with the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short, who later donated lands to the Church, forming the basis of the Papal States. The forgery provided an ancient legal foundation for the papacy’s territorial claims, making it a powerful political tool in medieval Europe.
The forgery was exposed in the 15th century by the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla, who analyzed the Latin text and identified numerous anachronisms. He demonstrated that the document contained language and bureaucratic terms that did not exist in the 4th century, proving that it could not have been written in Constantine’s time. While the Donation of Constantine had already shaped medieval politics for centuries, its exposure marked a turning point in historical scholarship, challenging the long-standing claims of papal supremacy based on fabricated evidence.
2. The Ordinance of Normandy
Edward III as head of the Order of the Garter, drawing c. 1430–40 in the Bruges Garter Book
The Ordinance of Normandy is a controversial document attributed to King Philip VI of France in 1338, detailing an alleged French plan to invade England and divide its territories among French nobles. According to historical accounts, the document was supposedly discovered by the English army after the Battle of Caen in 1346 and was publicly read at St. Paul’s Cathedral before being presented to the English Parliament. The text outlined an ambitious strategy in which Philip VI and his son, the Duke of Normandy (later King John II of France), would subjugate England, granting its lands to loyal French lords and effectively reducing the kingdom to a vassal state. It even claimed that the French intended to “destroy and ruin the entire English nation and country.” This inflammatory wording made the Ordinance an effective propaganda tool, rallying national support for Edward III’s war effort and justifying increased taxation and military mobilization.
Despite its impact on public sentiment, the authenticity of the Ordinance of Normandy is highly questionable. No original copies exist, and no French records corroborate the existence of such a strategic invasion plan. The document’s sudden discovery at a moment when England needed to unite against France raises suspicions that it was a fabrication created by English officials. Its detailed descriptions of France’s alleged intentions appear more designed to incite fear than to reflect genuine military strategy. Moreover, its language aligns with English interests rather than a practical French plan for conquest, further casting doubt on its legitimacy.
Whether real or forged, the Ordinance of Normandy played a significant role in the propaganda efforts of the Hundred Years’ War. By portraying France as a ruthless aggressor, it helped reinforce English unity and justified continued military campaigns. The episode serves as a striking example of how fabricated documents could shape medieval geopolitics and sway public opinion in times of war.
3. The Privilegium Maius
Rudolf IV of Austria, painted about 1365. As an added touch, he is wearing an archducal hat
The Privilegium Maius was a 14th-century forgery created by the Habsburgs to elevate Austria’s status within the Holy Roman Empire. It was a falsified expansion of the Privilegium Minus, a genuine charter issued by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1156, which had elevated the former March of Austria into a duchy. The forgery, commissioned in 1358 or 1359 by Duke Rudolf IV of Austria (r. 1358–1365), went further by claiming that Austria was not merely a duchy but an “archduchy.” This supposed title granted the ruling Habsburgs greater autonomy, exempting them from imperial jurisdiction and giving them the exclusive right to choose their own ruler without imperial approval.
The forgery was exposed in the 15th century when the renowned scholar and poet Petrarch examined the document and identified inconsistencies in its Latin style and terminology. His analysis revealed that the language did not match that of Frederick I’s time, and the Privilegium Maius contradicted known imperial policies and legal precedents. Despite being discredited as a forgery, the Habsburgs persisted in using it to justify their claims. Emperor Frederick III, himself a Habsburg, eventually legitimized the document in the late 15th century, formally granting Austria the privileges it falsely claimed.
Though fraudulent in origin, the Privilegium Maius had a lasting impact on European politics. By securing Austria’s status as an archduchy, it solidified the Habsburgs’ growing power and positioned them as key players in the Holy Roman Empire. The case exemplifies how forged documents could be used not only as short-term political tools but also as instruments that shaped the long-term trajectory of dynastic rule when later rulers chose to recognize them as legitimate.
4. The False Decretals (Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals)
The Donation of Constantine was only one of many instances where church officials fabricated documents to support their claims. Another, perhaps even more ambitious, forgery was the False Decretals, also known as the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals. Compiled in the 840s or 850s, during a period when the Carolingian Empire was actively deposing church officials, these documents falsely attributed legal rulings to early popes and bishops. Their purpose was to protect clergy by granting them immunity from trial and conviction by secular authorities, securing episcopal autonomy within dioceses, and defending church property. By reinforcing the idea that bishops answered only to the Pope, the False Decretals became a key tool in centralizing papal authority. As historian Levi Roach describes, “Pseudo-Isidore, the most ambitious (and successful) counterfeiter of canon law of the Middle Ages,” produced a collection that reshaped medieval church governance.
Scholars identified the forgeries through historical and linguistic inconsistencies, including anachronistic legal concepts and references to later canon law. Many of the letters, supposedly written by different early popes, displayed stylistic similarities, indicating they were actually created by a single author or group. Despite their fraudulent nature, the False Decretals were widely accepted in medieval Europe, influencing church law for centuries. Over a hundred medieval manuscripts containing Pseudo-Isidorian material survive, illustrating the far-reaching impact of these forgeries. Even after their authenticity was questioned, elements of these texts continued to shape ecclesiastical policies, demonstrating how a well-crafted forgery could have lasting consequences.
5. The Book of the Highest Initiation
The 10th century saw the Abbasid dynasty increasingly challenged over its role as the supreme authority in Islam. The greatest threat came from the Fatimids, who rose to power in North Africa and eventually took control of Egypt. Claiming to be the rightful leaders of the Islamic world, the Fatimid caliphate positioned itself as a rival to the Abbasids in Baghdad, sparking a bitter struggle for legitimacy.
In the following decades, anti-Fatimid propaganda flourished, with one of the most effective pieces being Kitab as-Siyasa wa’l-Balagh al-Akhbar, or The Book of the Highest Initiation. Supposedly authored by the first Fatimid caliph, this text was presented as a guide for converting people to Ismaili Islam. In reality, it was a complete fabrication, crafted to depict the Fatimids as deceitful and hostile to religion itself.
This forgery was a powerful tool for the Abbasids and their supporters to discredit the Fatimids, portraying them as heretical and manipulative. However, its broader impact was to deepen sectarian divisions within Islam, fueling hostility between Sunni and Ismaili factions and intensifying the struggle for religious and political dominance.
6. The Monastery of Saint-Denis’ Forged Charters
A 15th-century illustration depicting a Merovingian king coming to St Denis.
Monasteries were among the most prolific forgers of documents in the Middle Ages, using fabricated charters to assert privileges, claim land, and protect their autonomy from secular and ecclesiastical authorities. The Abbey of Saint-Denis, one of the most powerful monastic institutions in medieval France, was no exception. It relied heavily on forged documents to reinforce its independence from the Bishop of Paris and to secure royal patronage. These charters, allegedly granted by Merovingian and Carolingian rulers such as Dagobert I and Charlemagne, claimed that the monastery had been given vast estates, tax exemptions, and the right to offer sanctuary to fugitives.
The monks employed sophisticated techniques to make their forgeries appear authentic. As Robert F. Berkhofer III explains in his book Forgeries and Historical Writing in England, France, and Flanders, 900–1200, “Many of these pseudo-originals reused authentic Merovingian papyri through a clever process designed to give ancient material basis to the invented text. First, the fabricators wrote on the reverse of a genuine papyrus, imitating the handwriting on the front. Then, they erased the front, which became the ‘back’ of the forgery. To make this deception less detectable, the fragile papyri were glued onto parchment for ‘support,’ which hid the original front.” This method made the documents appear as if they had been preserved since the early medieval period, reducing the chances of scrutiny.
Astonishingly, a catalogue of pre-1000 documents at Saint-Denis reveals that 23% were either forgeries or heavily altered, illustrating the extent to which medieval institutions manipulated historical records to consolidate their power. It worked too – the monastery became closely connected with the Kings of France, including serving as the necropolis for nearly every French monarch between the 10th and 19th centuries.
7. Historia Croylandensis
Historia Croylandensis
David Roffe describes the Historia Croylandensis (The History of Crowland Abbey) as “a famous and infamous forgery.” Like many medieval monasteries, Crowland Abbey in eastern England maintained a chronicle of its past. This particular work was composed in multiple parts, extending up to the year 1486. The earliest section was attributed to Ingulf, the abbey’s abbot from 1087 to 1108, with a continuation supposedly written by Peter of Blois in the 12th century.
However, both of these early sections were eventually exposed as fabrications. Historians determined that the texts attributed to Ingulf and Peter were actually composed around the early 15th century. The motive behind the forgery appears to have been legal and strategic—created to bolster the abbey’s position in a land dispute. The forger worked with care and sophistication, drawing on genuine historical materials, including the Domesday Book, to lend authenticity to the abbey’s claims over contested properties.
Despite this subterfuge, Roffe writes that we should not judge the monks of Crowland too harshly. “Most communities found it expedient to forge at some time in their history,” he explains. “Crowland’s efforts are only exceptional in largely claiming no more than what already belonged to it and in the survival of its handiwork in an elaborate literary and historical conceit of the later Middle Ages.”
8. The Letter of Prester John
Prester John of the Indies. Close-up from a portolan chart. Bodleian Library MS. Douce 391
In the mid-12th century, a remarkable letter began to circulate across Europe, claiming to be from a Christian king named Prester John, who ruled a vast and fabulously wealthy kingdom somewhere in the East. Addressed to the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos and later sent to the Pope and other European rulers, the Letter of Prester John described a utopian realm filled with wonders and a society ruled by perfect justice. Most importantly, Prester John claimed to be a devout Christian monarch who stood ready to aid European Christendom against Muslim forces.
The letter was a complete fabrication, though its precise origin remains uncertain. Many scholars believe it was composed in northern Italy or the Holy Roman Empire around the 1160s, perhaps by a cleric or diplomat hoping to inspire unity among European powers during the Crusades. Its timing—shortly after the Second Crusade and during rising anxieties over the Islamic world—made it a potent mix of hope, fantasy, and political motivation. Though clearly fictional, the letter was accepted as authentic by many, fueling European dreams of alliance with a powerful Christian kingdom in the East for centuries.
The Letter of Prester John stands out among medieval forgeries for its imaginative scope and enduring influence. It not only shaped medieval geography and diplomacy, but it also sparked real-world expeditions in search of Prester John’s kingdom, particularly in Ethiopia and Central Asia. Unlike legal or religious forgeries aimed at claiming land or power, this document appealed to collective imagination and desire—blending politics, faith, and fantasy into one of the most captivating hoaxes of the Middle Ages.
9. The Worms Counterfeit Charters
Worms in the 16th century
When Anno became bishop of the German city of Worms in 950, he inherited a relatively poor bishopric. Ambitious to expand his power and privileges, he orchestrated a series of forgeries to strengthen his position. According to Levi Roach in his book Forgery and Memory at the End of the First Millennium, a scribe known only as Hildibald B was the master forger behind many fabricated charters that granted the Bishop of Worms increased authority and revenue.
These forgeries aimed to establish a long-standing tradition of episcopal rights over tolls, markets, and minting in the city, effectively rewriting local governance to favor the church. The charters, attributed to rulers from the 7th and 8th centuries, were designed to create the illusion of an unbroken history of royal privileges for the bishopric. As Roach notes, Anno “ended up with a string of counterfeits, covering all of Worms’s most important claims. At each step, one false text demanded another, till almost every early record from the house had been reworked in one way or another.”
A mitred Adhémar de Monteil carrying the Holy Lance in one of the battles of the First Crusade – British Library Yates Thompson MS 12
Thomas W. Smith’s Rewriting the First Crusade highlights how letters supposedly written during or just after the First Crusade were often not what they appeared to be. Some of the most widely circulated “letters” from crusade leaders or Byzantine emperors were in fact later inventions, crafted by Western authors to promote particular agendas. Rather than calling them forgeries in a legalistic sense, Smith prefers the more nuanced terms “confections,” acknowledging both their fictional and rhetorical nature.
A key example is the letter attributed to Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to Count Robert of Flanders, supposedly written in 1092. Smith shows that this letter—describing atrocities by Turks and appealing to the West to help save Byzantium—was likely composed after the First Crusade by Western clerics. Its graphic style and content would have been unimaginable in genuine Byzantine correspondence. Yet the document had enormous influence, appearing in at least 39 manuscripts, often as a preface to one of the most important accounts of the crusade, Robert the Monk’s Historia Ierosolimitana.
Smith also discusses forged letters attributed to bishops and crusade leaders, such as those of Stephen of Blois. In some cases, scholars have been able to detect fabricated sections by analyzing linguistic inconsistencies, anachronisms, or formulae that deviate from contemporary chancery style. What makes these letters especially deceptive is that they often preserved useful and unique information, blending fact with invention.
Rather than dismissing these letters as simple frauds, Smith argues they should be understood as part of a broader medieval storytelling and memory culture—a way for scribes and monastic communities to participate in the narrative of the Crusade. You can learn more about these letters in Smith’s appearance on The Medieval Podcast.
From imperial decrees and papal letters to monastic chronicles and fantastical travelogues, forgery was a powerful force in the medieval world. These documents were not simply lies on parchment—they were strategic creations, crafted to shape politics, religion, and history. Some forgeries secured land and privileges for monasteries; others undermined rivals or fueled crusading fervour. A few, like the Letter of Prester John, captured the imagination of an entire continent. Whether exposed by Renaissance scholars or unmasked by modern historians, these forgeries remind us that in the Middle Ages, the written word could be just as influential—and just as dangerous—as sword or crown.
Top Image: A Medieval Scribe at Work – British Library MS Royal 12 F.VIII, fol. 73v
Forging documents were powerful tools in the Middle Ages – used to claim authority, discredit rivals, and secure land or privileges. Whether crafted by rulers or monks, these documents shaped history by legitimizing false claims and altering legal and religious landscapes. Some went unchallenged for centuries, leaving a lasting impact on medieval society. Here are ten of the most remarkable forgeries of the Middle Ages.
1. The Donation of Constantine
The Donation of Constantine is one of the most infamous forgeries in medieval history, granting the Pope supreme authority over the Western Roman Empire. Supposedly issued by Emperor Constantine the Great in the 4th century, the document claimed that he had bestowed vast territorial and political power upon Pope Sylvester I as gratitude for curing him of leprosy. It stated that the Pope was to have dominion over Rome, Italy, and the entire Western Roman Empire, effectively making the papacy a secular authority over vast lands. Throughout the Middle Ages, this forged decree was used to justify the political power of the Papacy, particularly in conflicts between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperors. It played a crucial role in legitimizing the Papal States and strengthening the Church’s influence over European rulers.
Historians now believe the document was created in the 8th century, likely in the court of Pope Stephen II (r. 752–757) as he sought support against the Lombards. The Donation conveniently aligned with the Pope’s need for an alliance with the Frankish ruler Pepin the Short, who later donated lands to the Church, forming the basis of the Papal States. The forgery provided an ancient legal foundation for the papacy’s territorial claims, making it a powerful political tool in medieval Europe.
The forgery was exposed in the 15th century by the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla, who analyzed the Latin text and identified numerous anachronisms. He demonstrated that the document contained language and bureaucratic terms that did not exist in the 4th century, proving that it could not have been written in Constantine’s time. While the Donation of Constantine had already shaped medieval politics for centuries, its exposure marked a turning point in historical scholarship, challenging the long-standing claims of papal supremacy based on fabricated evidence.
2. The Ordinance of Normandy
The Ordinance of Normandy is a controversial document attributed to King Philip VI of France in 1338, detailing an alleged French plan to invade England and divide its territories among French nobles. According to historical accounts, the document was supposedly discovered by the English army after the Battle of Caen in 1346 and was publicly read at St. Paul’s Cathedral before being presented to the English Parliament. The text outlined an ambitious strategy in which Philip VI and his son, the Duke of Normandy (later King John II of France), would subjugate England, granting its lands to loyal French lords and effectively reducing the kingdom to a vassal state. It even claimed that the French intended to “destroy and ruin the entire English nation and country.” This inflammatory wording made the Ordinance an effective propaganda tool, rallying national support for Edward III’s war effort and justifying increased taxation and military mobilization.
Despite its impact on public sentiment, the authenticity of the Ordinance of Normandy is highly questionable. No original copies exist, and no French records corroborate the existence of such a strategic invasion plan. The document’s sudden discovery at a moment when England needed to unite against France raises suspicions that it was a fabrication created by English officials. Its detailed descriptions of France’s alleged intentions appear more designed to incite fear than to reflect genuine military strategy. Moreover, its language aligns with English interests rather than a practical French plan for conquest, further casting doubt on its legitimacy.
Whether real or forged, the Ordinance of Normandy played a significant role in the propaganda efforts of the Hundred Years’ War. By portraying France as a ruthless aggressor, it helped reinforce English unity and justified continued military campaigns. The episode serves as a striking example of how fabricated documents could shape medieval geopolitics and sway public opinion in times of war.
3. The Privilegium Maius
The Privilegium Maius was a 14th-century forgery created by the Habsburgs to elevate Austria’s status within the Holy Roman Empire. It was a falsified expansion of the Privilegium Minus, a genuine charter issued by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1156, which had elevated the former March of Austria into a duchy. The forgery, commissioned in 1358 or 1359 by Duke Rudolf IV of Austria (r. 1358–1365), went further by claiming that Austria was not merely a duchy but an “archduchy.” This supposed title granted the ruling Habsburgs greater autonomy, exempting them from imperial jurisdiction and giving them the exclusive right to choose their own ruler without imperial approval.
The forgery was exposed in the 15th century when the renowned scholar and poet Petrarch examined the document and identified inconsistencies in its Latin style and terminology. His analysis revealed that the language did not match that of Frederick I’s time, and the Privilegium Maius contradicted known imperial policies and legal precedents. Despite being discredited as a forgery, the Habsburgs persisted in using it to justify their claims. Emperor Frederick III, himself a Habsburg, eventually legitimized the document in the late 15th century, formally granting Austria the privileges it falsely claimed.
Though fraudulent in origin, the Privilegium Maius had a lasting impact on European politics. By securing Austria’s status as an archduchy, it solidified the Habsburgs’ growing power and positioned them as key players in the Holy Roman Empire. The case exemplifies how forged documents could be used not only as short-term political tools but also as instruments that shaped the long-term trajectory of dynastic rule when later rulers chose to recognize them as legitimate.
4. The False Decretals (Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals)
The Donation of Constantine was only one of many instances where church officials fabricated documents to support their claims. Another, perhaps even more ambitious, forgery was the False Decretals, also known as the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals. Compiled in the 840s or 850s, during a period when the Carolingian Empire was actively deposing church officials, these documents falsely attributed legal rulings to early popes and bishops. Their purpose was to protect clergy by granting them immunity from trial and conviction by secular authorities, securing episcopal autonomy within dioceses, and defending church property. By reinforcing the idea that bishops answered only to the Pope, the False Decretals became a key tool in centralizing papal authority. As historian Levi Roach describes, “Pseudo-Isidore, the most ambitious (and successful) counterfeiter of canon law of the Middle Ages,” produced a collection that reshaped medieval church governance.
Scholars identified the forgeries through historical and linguistic inconsistencies, including anachronistic legal concepts and references to later canon law. Many of the letters, supposedly written by different early popes, displayed stylistic similarities, indicating they were actually created by a single author or group. Despite their fraudulent nature, the False Decretals were widely accepted in medieval Europe, influencing church law for centuries. Over a hundred medieval manuscripts containing Pseudo-Isidorian material survive, illustrating the far-reaching impact of these forgeries. Even after their authenticity was questioned, elements of these texts continued to shape ecclesiastical policies, demonstrating how a well-crafted forgery could have lasting consequences.
5. The Book of the Highest Initiation
The 10th century saw the Abbasid dynasty increasingly challenged over its role as the supreme authority in Islam. The greatest threat came from the Fatimids, who rose to power in North Africa and eventually took control of Egypt. Claiming to be the rightful leaders of the Islamic world, the Fatimid caliphate positioned itself as a rival to the Abbasids in Baghdad, sparking a bitter struggle for legitimacy.
In the following decades, anti-Fatimid propaganda flourished, with one of the most effective pieces being Kitab as-Siyasa wa’l-Balagh al-Akhbar, or The Book of the Highest Initiation. Supposedly authored by the first Fatimid caliph, this text was presented as a guide for converting people to Ismaili Islam. In reality, it was a complete fabrication, crafted to depict the Fatimids as deceitful and hostile to religion itself.
This forgery was a powerful tool for the Abbasids and their supporters to discredit the Fatimids, portraying them as heretical and manipulative. However, its broader impact was to deepen sectarian divisions within Islam, fueling hostility between Sunni and Ismaili factions and intensifying the struggle for religious and political dominance.
6. The Monastery of Saint-Denis’ Forged Charters
Monasteries were among the most prolific forgers of documents in the Middle Ages, using fabricated charters to assert privileges, claim land, and protect their autonomy from secular and ecclesiastical authorities. The Abbey of Saint-Denis, one of the most powerful monastic institutions in medieval France, was no exception. It relied heavily on forged documents to reinforce its independence from the Bishop of Paris and to secure royal patronage. These charters, allegedly granted by Merovingian and Carolingian rulers such as Dagobert I and Charlemagne, claimed that the monastery had been given vast estates, tax exemptions, and the right to offer sanctuary to fugitives.
The monks employed sophisticated techniques to make their forgeries appear authentic. As Robert F. Berkhofer III explains in his book Forgeries and Historical Writing in England, France, and Flanders, 900–1200, “Many of these pseudo-originals reused authentic Merovingian papyri through a clever process designed to give ancient material basis to the invented text. First, the fabricators wrote on the reverse of a genuine papyrus, imitating the handwriting on the front. Then, they erased the front, which became the ‘back’ of the forgery. To make this deception less detectable, the fragile papyri were glued onto parchment for ‘support,’ which hid the original front.” This method made the documents appear as if they had been preserved since the early medieval period, reducing the chances of scrutiny.
Astonishingly, a catalogue of pre-1000 documents at Saint-Denis reveals that 23% were either forgeries or heavily altered, illustrating the extent to which medieval institutions manipulated historical records to consolidate their power. It worked too – the monastery became closely connected with the Kings of France, including serving as the necropolis for nearly every French monarch between the 10th and 19th centuries.
7. Historia Croylandensis
David Roffe describes the Historia Croylandensis (The History of Crowland Abbey) as “a famous and infamous forgery.” Like many medieval monasteries, Crowland Abbey in eastern England maintained a chronicle of its past. This particular work was composed in multiple parts, extending up to the year 1486. The earliest section was attributed to Ingulf, the abbey’s abbot from 1087 to 1108, with a continuation supposedly written by Peter of Blois in the 12th century.
However, both of these early sections were eventually exposed as fabrications. Historians determined that the texts attributed to Ingulf and Peter were actually composed around the early 15th century. The motive behind the forgery appears to have been legal and strategic—created to bolster the abbey’s position in a land dispute. The forger worked with care and sophistication, drawing on genuine historical materials, including the Domesday Book, to lend authenticity to the abbey’s claims over contested properties.
Despite this subterfuge, Roffe writes that we should not judge the monks of Crowland too harshly. “Most communities found it expedient to forge at some time in their history,” he explains. “Crowland’s efforts are only exceptional in largely claiming no more than what already belonged to it and in the survival of its handiwork in an elaborate literary and historical conceit of the later Middle Ages.”
8. The Letter of Prester John
In the mid-12th century, a remarkable letter began to circulate across Europe, claiming to be from a Christian king named Prester John, who ruled a vast and fabulously wealthy kingdom somewhere in the East. Addressed to the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos and later sent to the Pope and other European rulers, the Letter of Prester John described a utopian realm filled with wonders and a society ruled by perfect justice. Most importantly, Prester John claimed to be a devout Christian monarch who stood ready to aid European Christendom against Muslim forces.
The letter was a complete fabrication, though its precise origin remains uncertain. Many scholars believe it was composed in northern Italy or the Holy Roman Empire around the 1160s, perhaps by a cleric or diplomat hoping to inspire unity among European powers during the Crusades. Its timing—shortly after the Second Crusade and during rising anxieties over the Islamic world—made it a potent mix of hope, fantasy, and political motivation. Though clearly fictional, the letter was accepted as authentic by many, fueling European dreams of alliance with a powerful Christian kingdom in the East for centuries.
The Letter of Prester John stands out among medieval forgeries for its imaginative scope and enduring influence. It not only shaped medieval geography and diplomacy, but it also sparked real-world expeditions in search of Prester John’s kingdom, particularly in Ethiopia and Central Asia. Unlike legal or religious forgeries aimed at claiming land or power, this document appealed to collective imagination and desire—blending politics, faith, and fantasy into one of the most captivating hoaxes of the Middle Ages.
9. The Worms Counterfeit Charters
When Anno became bishop of the German city of Worms in 950, he inherited a relatively poor bishopric. Ambitious to expand his power and privileges, he orchestrated a series of forgeries to strengthen his position. According to Levi Roach in his book Forgery and Memory at the End of the First Millennium, a scribe known only as Hildibald B was the master forger behind many fabricated charters that granted the Bishop of Worms increased authority and revenue.
These forgeries aimed to establish a long-standing tradition of episcopal rights over tolls, markets, and minting in the city, effectively rewriting local governance to favor the church. The charters, attributed to rulers from the 7th and 8th centuries, were designed to create the illusion of an unbroken history of royal privileges for the bishopric. As Roach notes, Anno “ended up with a string of counterfeits, covering all of Worms’s most important claims. At each step, one false text demanded another, till almost every early record from the house had been reworked in one way or another.”
Check out the episode Forgeries in the Middle Ages with Levi Roach of The Medieval Podcast to learn more,
10. Letters of the First Crusade
Thomas W. Smith’s Rewriting the First Crusade highlights how letters supposedly written during or just after the First Crusade were often not what they appeared to be. Some of the most widely circulated “letters” from crusade leaders or Byzantine emperors were in fact later inventions, crafted by Western authors to promote particular agendas. Rather than calling them forgeries in a legalistic sense, Smith prefers the more nuanced terms “confections,” acknowledging both their fictional and rhetorical nature.
A key example is the letter attributed to Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to Count Robert of Flanders, supposedly written in 1092. Smith shows that this letter—describing atrocities by Turks and appealing to the West to help save Byzantium—was likely composed after the First Crusade by Western clerics. Its graphic style and content would have been unimaginable in genuine Byzantine correspondence. Yet the document had enormous influence, appearing in at least 39 manuscripts, often as a preface to one of the most important accounts of the crusade, Robert the Monk’s Historia Ierosolimitana.
Smith also discusses forged letters attributed to bishops and crusade leaders, such as those of Stephen of Blois. In some cases, scholars have been able to detect fabricated sections by analyzing linguistic inconsistencies, anachronisms, or formulae that deviate from contemporary chancery style. What makes these letters especially deceptive is that they often preserved useful and unique information, blending fact with invention.
Rather than dismissing these letters as simple frauds, Smith argues they should be understood as part of a broader medieval storytelling and memory culture—a way for scribes and monastic communities to participate in the narrative of the Crusade. You can learn more about these letters in Smith’s appearance on The Medieval Podcast.
From imperial decrees and papal letters to monastic chronicles and fantastical travelogues, forgery was a powerful force in the medieval world. These documents were not simply lies on parchment—they were strategic creations, crafted to shape politics, religion, and history. Some forgeries secured land and privileges for monasteries; others undermined rivals or fueled crusading fervour. A few, like the Letter of Prester John, captured the imagination of an entire continent. Whether exposed by Renaissance scholars or unmasked by modern historians, these forgeries remind us that in the Middle Ages, the written word could be just as influential—and just as dangerous—as sword or crown.
Top Image: A Medieval Scribe at Work – British Library MS Royal 12 F.VIII, fol. 73v
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