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The Myth of Mills: Bridging Antiquity and Medieval Innovation

By Lorris Chevalier

‘Let there be no mistake: an invention of Antiquity, the watermill is medieval by the time of its true expansion.’ ~ Marc Bloch

This statement by the pioneering historian encapsulates a fascinating historical narrative. The history of watermills has often been portrayed as a Middle Ages revolution, driven by the ingenuity of medieval engineers. However, recent research reveals that this evolution is part of a much older historical continuity, tracing back to Antiquity. Jean Gimpel and Marc Bloch were instrumental in popularising the notion that, although invented in ancient times, watermills were ‘medieval in the era of their true expansion.’

Ancient Mills and Charlemagne’s Unfinished Project

Antiquity has left us remarkable examples of hydraulic mills, most notably the Barbegal complex near Arles in Roman Gaul. Dating back to the 2nd century, this site is often described as ‘the oldest factory in the world.’ Its 16 mills, arranged in a cascading sequence, used waterpower for large-scale grain milling. However, the reasons behind its eventual abandonment remain a mystery, attributed variously to the fall of the Roman Empire, economic transformations, or climate changes.

This hydraulic expertise did not vanish with Antiquity. During the Carolingian era, particular attention was given to mills and water management. Charlemagne himself envisioned connecting the Rhine and the Danube via a canal, an ambitious project that, although ultimately abandoned, exemplified the period’s determination to harness waterways for economic and communication purposes. This unfinished endeavour underscores the continuity of hydraulic ingenuity from the ancient to the medieval world.

Model of the water mills at Barbegal in Musée de l’Arles antique. Photo by Carole Raddato / Wikimedia Commons

Mills in the Carolingian Era

Beyond grand projects, mills played a significant role in the Carolingian economy, as demonstrated by the research of Dietrich Lohrmann and Étienne Champion. Lohrmann highlighted the importance of mills in the economy of Frankish Neustria, while Champion analysed Carolingian documents, particularly polyptychs, to reveal the widespread presence of mills between the Loire and the Rhine.

Champion’s meticulous study of texts shows that approximately 75% of Carolingian monasteries had easy access to a mill for their economic and subsistence needs. While peasant tenures were slightly less well-equipped, most still enjoyed relatively easy access to milling facilities. These findings challenge the notion of a medieval Europe largely devoid of hydraulic infrastructure before the 12th century.

The 12th Century: A Proto-Industrial Shift

While watermills were an inheritance from Antiquity, the 12th century marked a pivotal moment in their application across Europe. During this period, the use of hydraulic technology expanded dramatically beyond grain milling. Water was harnessed for a variety of purposes, including:

  • timber sawing,
  • textile production (notably through fulling mills),
  • tanning processes,
  • and, most notably, iron metallurgy.

These developments led to a true proto-industrial transformation. Traditional methods of metallurgy persisted in some areas until the 15th century, but water-powered mechanisms greatly enhanced industrial productivity. However, the diffusion of these innovations was uneven across Europe. For instance, major textile-producing cities were slow to adopt fulling mills, while other regions quickly integrated these advancements to fuel their economic growth.

A Gradual Evolution, Not a Medieval Invention

14th-century watermill; a brick building with wooden framework. The waterwheel is in a narrow stream formed by a wooden dam placed across the greater part of the river; fish nets and eel traps are visible beneath the waters of the mill leat. Image taken from Luttrell Psalter. British Library MS Add. 42130, fol.181

The 12th century thus represents a crucial milestone in the history of watermills, showcasing a level of diversification unprecedented in earlier periods. While Antiquity laid the groundwork, the Carolingian era expanded their presence, and the High Middle Ages transformed them into drivers of economic and technological development.

However, one must refrain from viewing mills as the decisive cause of Europe’s proto-industrial evolution. The transformations observed in Western Europe were far from homogeneous, making it difficult to speak of a cohesive ‘mill movement’ or to treat mills as a universal mechanism of progress. Instead, they were one among many factors contributing to the 12th century’s broader growth.

Ultimately, the importance of mills lies in their evolution over time rather than as a singular invention. This nuanced perspective highlights the complexity of technological and economic progress in medieval Europe, reflecting the intricate interplay of continuity and innovation across centuries.

Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon. Click here to view his website.

Further Readings:

Marc Bloch, “Avènement et conquête du moulin à eau,” Annales d’histoire économique et sociale, t. VII, 1935, p. 538-563.

Benoit Paul, Berthier Karine. L’innovation dans l’exploitation de l’énergie hydraulique d’après le cas des monastères cisterciens de Bourgogne, Champagne et Franche-Comté. In: L’innovation technique au Moyen Âge. Actes du VIe Congrès international d’Archéologie Médiévale (1-5 Octobre 1996, Dijon – Mont Beuvray – Chenôve – Le Creusot – Montbard) Caen : Société d’Archéologie Médiévale, 1998. pp. 58-66. 

Jean Gimpel, La révolution industrielle du Moyen Age, Paris, 1975.

Pierre Marchandin. Moulins et énergie à Paris du XIIIe au XVIe siècle. Histoire. Université Paris sciences et lettres, 2021. Français. ffNNT : 2021UPSLN002

Top Image: British Library MS Cotton Augustus V, fol. 345v