Waves of human migration across Europe during the first millennium AD have been revealed in a groundbreaking study. By analysing Ancient DNA with a novel method, researchers have reconstructed detailed patterns of population movements during the Iron Age, the fall of the Roman Empire, the early medieval ‘Migration Period,’ and the Viking Age.
Published in Nature, the research introduces Twigstats, a tool that measures subtle genetic variations with unparalleled precision. The team applied Twigstats to over 1,500 ancient genomes, uncovering fascinating insights into the migrations that shaped medieval Europe and its genetic legacy.
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“We already have reliable statistical tools to compare the genetics between groups of people who are genetically very different, like hunter-gatherers and early farmers, but robust analyses of finer-scale population changes, like the migrations we reveal in this paper, have largely been obscured until now,” explains Leo Speidel, the lead author and group leader at RIKEN, Japan. “Twigstats allows us to see what we couldn’t before, in this case migrations all across Europe originating in the north of Europe in the Iron Age, and then back into Scandinavia before the Viking Age. Our new method can be applied to other populations across the world and hopefully reveal more missing pieces of the puzzle.”
Germanic Tribes on the Move
Historical accounts by Roman authors like Tacitus often mention Germanic groups pressing against the Empire’s borders. Now, genetic evidence confirms waves of migration from Northern Germany and Scandinavia into central and southern Europe.
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These migrations began in the early first millennium AD, as evidenced by Scandinavian-like ancestry found in individuals from southern Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, and southern Britain. One striking case involved an individual in southern Europe with nearly 100% Scandinavian ancestry.
“Across Europe, we see regional differences in the southeastern and southwestern expansions of Scandinavian-related ancestries,” the authors write. “If these expansions are indeed linked to language, this pattern is remarkably concordant with the main branches of Germanic languages, with the now-extinct eastern Germanic spoken by Goths in Ukraine on the one hand, and western Germanic languages such as Old English and Old High German recorded in the early medieval period on the other hand.”
Three waves of migrations across Europe were identified in the paper. Image by Leo Speidel, The Francis Crick Institute
Scandinavian Presence in Roman Britain
A surprising discovery came from York, where an individual buried between the 2nd and 4th centuries AD, possibly a Roman soldier or gladiator, was found to have 25% Scandinavian ancestry. The authors note, “This documents that people with Scandinavian-related ancestry already were in Britain before the fifth century CE, after which there was a substantial influx associated with Anglo-Saxon migrations. Although it is uncertain whether this individual was a gladiator or soldier, individuals and groups from northern Europe are indeed recorded in Roman sources both as soldiers and as enslaved gladiators.”
🏺
Exaltations to my colleague Leo Speidel! He developed a method for looking at ancient human ancestry in finer detail, allowing us to better distinguish between very similar ancestries, for instance ancestries carried by populations of N. Europe in 1st Mill CE.
The study provided new clarity on genetic shifts in Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary during the early medieval period.
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Poland and the Goths – In Poland, individuals associated with the Wielbark culture (1st–5th century AD) displayed strong Scandinavian ancestry, supporting links to early Goths. However, by the medieval period, the genetic profile shifted dramatically, showing influences from Lithuania, Hungary, and the Caucasus. These findings reject earlier continuity models and reveal the scale of population transformations during this time.
Slovakia: A Gateway for Migration – A burial from the first century AD in Slovakia contained an individual with exclusively Scandinavian ancestry, suggesting early contact between these regions. By the medieval period, populations displayed mixed ancestries, reflecting the integration of migrating and local groups.
Hungary and the Longobards – Hungarian burials associated with the Longobards (6th century AD) revealed a mix of Scandinavian and Central European ancestries, consistent with historical records of their migration from northern Germany or Denmark.
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The article also notes that “Present-day populations of Hungary do not appear to derive detectable ancestry from early medieval individuals from Longobard contexts, and are instead more similar to Scythian-related ancestry sources, consistent with the later impact of Avars, Magyars and other eastern groups.”
500AD – 1000AD:
We then shift our focus to Scandinavia itself, where a huge diversification in ancestry is seen by the Viking Age, compared to the preceding early Iron Age. This was observed previously, but how did this dramatic diversification happen? pic.twitter.com/DbKgymgxgO
While much attention has focused on Viking Age expansions, the study highlights significant migrations into Scandinavia during the Late Iron Age (300–800 AD).
Findings from Öland, an island off Sweden’s southeast coast, suggest that individuals with Central European ancestry grew up locally, indicating long-term integration rather than transient migration. By the Viking Age, this Central European ancestry became prominent in southern Scandinavia, particularly in Denmark, while northern regions like Norway and northern Sweden retained greater continuity with earlier Iron Age groups.
Archaeological evidence, such as the Sandby Borg massacre on Öland, suggests that conflicts may have driven these migrations. However, further research is needed to understand the causes fully.
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Viking Age Mobility and Regional Differences
The Viking Age (c. 800–1050 AD) marked a period of intense maritime expansion, and the study’s findings support historical records of Viking migrations.
Britain and the Viking Diaspora – In Britain, Viking Age mass graves revealed individuals with genetic ties to southern Scandinavia, consistent with raiding parties. Elsewhere, Viking settlements in Eastern Europe, such as Staraya Ladoga in Russia, displayed a strong Scandinavian genetic influence.
Regional Distinctions in Scandinavia – The study highlighted significant differences within Scandinavia itself. Southern Scandinavia exhibited strong Central European influences, while populations in Norway and northern Sweden retained genetic profiles closer to their Iron Age ancestors. In Gotland, Sweden, Eastern European influences were prominent, particularly among male individuals, indicating male-biased mobility or burial practices.
Beyond Europe – The Viking Age also connected Scandinavia to far-flung regions, including Ukraine, Russia, and the North Atlantic. In Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands, Viking settlers displayed ancestry from both Scandinavia and Britain, reflecting the diverse nature of Viking expansion.
Resolving Historical Mysteries
Peter Heather, Professor of Medieval History at King’s College London and co-author of the study, reflected on the implications: “Historical sources indicate that migration played some role in the massive restructuring of the human landscape of western Eurasia in the second half of the first millennium AD which first created the outlines of a politically and culturally recognisable Europe, but the nature, scale and even the trajectories of the movements have always been hotly disputed. Twigstats opens up the exciting possibility of finally resolving these crucial questions.”
A New Era for Ancient DNA Research
By combining cutting-edge methods with historical and archaeological data, this research provides a deeper understanding of medieval Europe’s genetic history. As Leo Speidel explained, “We already have reliable statistical tools to compare the genetics between groups of people who are genetically very different, like hunter-gatherers and early farmers, but robust analyses of finer-scale population changes, like the migrations we reveal in this paper, have largely been obscured until now. Twigstats allows us to see what we couldn’t before, in this case migrations all across Europe originating in the north of Europe in the Iron Age, and then back into Scandinavia before the Viking Age. Our new method can be applied to other populations across the world and hopefully reveal more missing pieces of the puzzle.”
F-statistics are incredibly useful to quantify mixtures between well-differentiated groups, but many events have remained below detection thresholds. Twigstats increases f-statistics power to the level of haplotype-based methods by focusing on recent coalescences in genealogies. pic.twitter.com/rr7JEjzO9O
The article, “High-resolution genomic history of early medieval Europe,” by Leo Speidel, Marina Silva, Thomas Booth, Ben Raffield, Kyriaki Anastasiadou, Christopher Barrington, Anders Götherström, Peter Heather and Pontus Skoglund, appears in Nature. Click here to read it.
Top Image: Image inspired by the serpentine carvings found on Viking Age runestones, featuring the runes for DNA bases A, T, G and C. Credit: Oliver Uberti.
Waves of human migration across Europe during the first millennium AD have been revealed in a groundbreaking study. By analysing Ancient DNA with a novel method, researchers have reconstructed detailed patterns of population movements during the Iron Age, the fall of the Roman Empire, the early medieval ‘Migration Period,’ and the Viking Age.
Published in Nature, the research introduces Twigstats, a tool that measures subtle genetic variations with unparalleled precision. The team applied Twigstats to over 1,500 ancient genomes, uncovering fascinating insights into the migrations that shaped medieval Europe and its genetic legacy.
“We already have reliable statistical tools to compare the genetics between groups of people who are genetically very different, like hunter-gatherers and early farmers, but robust analyses of finer-scale population changes, like the migrations we reveal in this paper, have largely been obscured until now,” explains Leo Speidel, the lead author and group leader at RIKEN, Japan. “Twigstats allows us to see what we couldn’t before, in this case migrations all across Europe originating in the north of Europe in the Iron Age, and then back into Scandinavia before the Viking Age. Our new method can be applied to other populations across the world and hopefully reveal more missing pieces of the puzzle.”
Germanic Tribes on the Move
Historical accounts by Roman authors like Tacitus often mention Germanic groups pressing against the Empire’s borders. Now, genetic evidence confirms waves of migration from Northern Germany and Scandinavia into central and southern Europe.
These migrations began in the early first millennium AD, as evidenced by Scandinavian-like ancestry found in individuals from southern Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, and southern Britain. One striking case involved an individual in southern Europe with nearly 100% Scandinavian ancestry.
“Across Europe, we see regional differences in the southeastern and southwestern expansions of Scandinavian-related ancestries,” the authors write. “If these expansions are indeed linked to language, this pattern is remarkably concordant with the main branches of Germanic languages, with the now-extinct eastern Germanic spoken by Goths in Ukraine on the one hand, and western Germanic languages such as Old English and Old High German recorded in the early medieval period on the other hand.”
Scandinavian Presence in Roman Britain
A surprising discovery came from York, where an individual buried between the 2nd and 4th centuries AD, possibly a Roman soldier or gladiator, was found to have 25% Scandinavian ancestry. The authors note, “This documents that people with Scandinavian-related ancestry already were in Britain before the fifth century CE, after which there was a substantial influx associated with Anglo-Saxon migrations. Although it is uncertain whether this individual was a gladiator or soldier, individuals and groups from northern Europe are indeed recorded in Roman sources both as soldiers and as enslaved gladiators.”
Genetic Transformations in Eastern Europe
The study provided new clarity on genetic shifts in Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary during the early medieval period.
Poland and the Goths – In Poland, individuals associated with the Wielbark culture (1st–5th century AD) displayed strong Scandinavian ancestry, supporting links to early Goths. However, by the medieval period, the genetic profile shifted dramatically, showing influences from Lithuania, Hungary, and the Caucasus. These findings reject earlier continuity models and reveal the scale of population transformations during this time.
Slovakia: A Gateway for Migration – A burial from the first century AD in Slovakia contained an individual with exclusively Scandinavian ancestry, suggesting early contact between these regions. By the medieval period, populations displayed mixed ancestries, reflecting the integration of migrating and local groups.
Hungary and the Longobards – Hungarian burials associated with the Longobards (6th century AD) revealed a mix of Scandinavian and Central European ancestries, consistent with historical records of their migration from northern Germany or Denmark.
The article also notes that “Present-day populations of Hungary do not appear to derive detectable ancestry from early medieval individuals from Longobard contexts, and are instead more similar to Scythian-related ancestry sources, consistent with the later impact of Avars, Magyars and other eastern groups.”
Central European Influences in Scandinavia
While much attention has focused on Viking Age expansions, the study highlights significant migrations into Scandinavia during the Late Iron Age (300–800 AD).
Findings from Öland, an island off Sweden’s southeast coast, suggest that individuals with Central European ancestry grew up locally, indicating long-term integration rather than transient migration. By the Viking Age, this Central European ancestry became prominent in southern Scandinavia, particularly in Denmark, while northern regions like Norway and northern Sweden retained greater continuity with earlier Iron Age groups.
Archaeological evidence, such as the Sandby Borg massacre on Öland, suggests that conflicts may have driven these migrations. However, further research is needed to understand the causes fully.
Viking Age Mobility and Regional Differences
The Viking Age (c. 800–1050 AD) marked a period of intense maritime expansion, and the study’s findings support historical records of Viking migrations.
Britain and the Viking Diaspora – In Britain, Viking Age mass graves revealed individuals with genetic ties to southern Scandinavia, consistent with raiding parties. Elsewhere, Viking settlements in Eastern Europe, such as Staraya Ladoga in Russia, displayed a strong Scandinavian genetic influence.
Regional Distinctions in Scandinavia – The study highlighted significant differences within Scandinavia itself. Southern Scandinavia exhibited strong Central European influences, while populations in Norway and northern Sweden retained genetic profiles closer to their Iron Age ancestors. In Gotland, Sweden, Eastern European influences were prominent, particularly among male individuals, indicating male-biased mobility or burial practices.
Beyond Europe – The Viking Age also connected Scandinavia to far-flung regions, including Ukraine, Russia, and the North Atlantic. In Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands, Viking settlers displayed ancestry from both Scandinavia and Britain, reflecting the diverse nature of Viking expansion.
Resolving Historical Mysteries
Peter Heather, Professor of Medieval History at King’s College London and co-author of the study, reflected on the implications: “Historical sources indicate that migration played some role in the massive restructuring of the human landscape of western Eurasia in the second half of the first millennium AD which first created the outlines of a politically and culturally recognisable Europe, but the nature, scale and even the trajectories of the movements have always been hotly disputed. Twigstats opens up the exciting possibility of finally resolving these crucial questions.”
A New Era for Ancient DNA Research
By combining cutting-edge methods with historical and archaeological data, this research provides a deeper understanding of medieval Europe’s genetic history. As Leo Speidel explained, “We already have reliable statistical tools to compare the genetics between groups of people who are genetically very different, like hunter-gatherers and early farmers, but robust analyses of finer-scale population changes, like the migrations we reveal in this paper, have largely been obscured until now. Twigstats allows us to see what we couldn’t before, in this case migrations all across Europe originating in the north of Europe in the Iron Age, and then back into Scandinavia before the Viking Age. Our new method can be applied to other populations across the world and hopefully reveal more missing pieces of the puzzle.”
The article, “High-resolution genomic history of early medieval Europe,” by Leo Speidel, Marina Silva, Thomas Booth, Ben Raffield, Kyriaki Anastasiadou, Christopher Barrington, Anders Götherström, Peter Heather and Pontus Skoglund, appears in Nature. Click here to read it.
Top Image: Image inspired by the serpentine carvings found on Viking Age runestones, featuring the runes for DNA bases A, T, G and C. Credit: Oliver Uberti.
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