How Medieval Armies Cared for Their Warhorses

By Emma Herbert-Davies

The thundering charge of knights on horseback is one of the most iconic images of medieval warfare. Yet, behind this spectacle lay the laborious and meticulous care for the warhorses that made these campaigns possible. These magnificent animals required not only immense resources but also a sophisticated system of management to ensure their survival and effectiveness. This article explores how medieval armies looked after their warhorses, from initial preparations to the challenges they faced on campaign.

Preparing for Campaign

The care of warhorses began long before armies marched to war. Parliamentary writs issued several months before a campaign allowed knights to ready their horses. They often needed multiple mounts, such as destriers for battle, palfreys for travel, and pack horses to carry equipment. Wealthier knights brought spare warhorses, as losing one could mean a reduction in pay or even being dismounted in combat. For instance, Sir Walter Beauchamp and his two sons took at least eight warhorses on the 1298 Scottish campaign to maintain their status and effectiveness on the battlefield.

Musters, where troops were assembled for inspection at the start of a campaign, were critical in this preparation phase. Paid men-at-arms had to have their horses appraised so they could receive financial compensation if these animals were lost in the war. Appraisers examined each horse’s health and value, recording details such as type, colour, and markings. Diseased, sick, or lame horses were rejected, while minor defects, such as a missing eye or cropped ears, were tolerated. Horses were often branded to prevent substitution or theft, following practices common in France, Italy, and Spain. Branding ensured accountability and allowed the army’s horses to be identified and compensated for, should they be killed.

Feeding and Sustenance

Feeding warhorses on campaign was a major logistical challenge. A single warhorse required half a bushel of oats daily, and this translated to 20 tons of grain per day for the 3,400 warhorses taken on the 1298 campaign in Scotland, not including the thousands of other horses used for baggage and non-combat roles. An army on the move relied on falcatores, men employed to scythe grass and other vegetation from surrounding areas when the horses were billeted overnight.

Local sheriffs were ordered to collect vast quantities of oats and forage, which were transported to mustering points and various garrisons along the route. However, these supply chains were vulnerable. Ambushes on supply trains, such as those in Scotland and Wales, often left both horses and men without adequate food. Army documents record how horses frequently suffered on winter campaigns due to a lack of forage, and, occasionally, starving garrison troops had no other option but to eat their own mounts.

Shoeing and Foot Care

Shoeing warhorses was another critical aspect of their care. Losing a shoe on the march could lead to lameness, potentially taking a horse out of service. Royal campaigns employed farriers to keep horses well-shod. These specialists used thousands of prefabricated horseshoes and nails, often transported in bulk to campaign sites. Horseshoes were typically reshaped on the march using either hot or cold shoeing methods, allowing quick replacements in the field.

Large-scale shoeing operations were vital to keeping army horses on the move. For the 1298 campaign, over 13,600 warhorse hooves required attention, necessitating careful planning and coordination among farriers. Poor road conditions compounded these challenges, with many roads described as nearly impassable due to heavy cart traffic.

Medical Care and Recovery

On campaign, horses inevitably sustained injuries or fell ill. Marshals, often trained as both fighters and horse doctors, were responsible for their treatment. Sick or wounded horses were sent to the baggage train, where they received care from dedicated marshals. In some cases, these horses recovered and returned to service. For example, two horses injured at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298 were later restored to health in Durham and returned to their owners.

Veterinary care was relatively advanced for the period, drawing on the expertise of practitioners such as Jordanus Ruffus of Calabria (c. 1200–1256), whose treatise on equine medicine was widely read. Wounds and common ailments, such as respiratory issues or abscesses, were identified and treated when possible. Great efforts were made to save horses. Records from Edward II’s campaigns reveal that sub-trains of injured horses were moved out of enemy territory to safer bases like York. Here, they would be rested and have their wounds treated. Although some died en route due to the strain of movement and their injuries, others survived. These were later absorbed into the royal stables as remounts.

Shelter and Protection

Providing adequate shelter for horses on campaign was challenging. Great care was taken to look after royal horses: wooden stalls were erected for destriers and palfreys wherever possible, and canvas tents were provided for the horses used to pull the household carts. However, most other horses were hobbled and picketed overnight, especially during the march to keep them close at hand.

Warhorses were also equipped with armour, known as barding, to protect them in battle. Armour types included leather and padded textiles, chain mail, and small pieces of plate armour. While barding offered some protection against arrows and weapons, it also added weight and increased the risk of horses overheating. This limited the extent to which they could be armoured. Experiments have shown that mail armour with sufficient padding helped mitigate injuries from arrows and lance strikes, but fully armoured horses were rare due to weight and mobility concerns.

Challenges on Campaign

The rigours of campaign life often proved too much for many warhorses. Horses suffered from exhaustion, malnutrition, and injuries. Campaigns through harsh terrain further strained them, with many falling lame or succumbing to disease. Long marches and inclement weather took a heavy toll on these animals: in 1301, a third of the horses in the king’s suite were recorded as lost on campaign, and a few years later, more than half were described as either having died or become too exhausted to continue.

Chroniclers frequently recorded the devastating loss of horses due to starvation or combat injuries. For instance, the 1327 Weardale campaign saw horses eating leaves and mouldy heath grass as supplies dwindled.

Combat was especially perilous for warhorses. Despite barding, their legs and underbellies remained vulnerable. Accounts from battles like Bannockburn describe how Scottish spears disembowelled English horses, unhorsing their riders and leaving them exposed. Destriers, as the primary combat mounts, bore the brunt of casualties, with many targeted to incapacitate their elite riders.

The care of warhorses was a monumental task that required meticulous planning and vast resources. From ensuring their health and sustenance to protecting them in battle, medieval armies depended on these animals for their mobility and striking power. Yet, despite the best efforts of marshals, farriers, and appraisers, the hardships of war often claimed the lives of these noble beasts. Warhorses were more than tools of war; they were vital partners whose fate was intricately tied to the success or failure of a campaign.

Dr Emma Herbert-Davies is a graduate of the Institute for Medieval Studies at the University of Leeds, UK. She is a keen horsewoman and has published several articles and book chapters on medieval horses. Her upcoming book, The Warhorse in England: 1272-1327, will be published by Trivent Publishing this February.

Top Image: The Queen Mary Psalter – British Library, Royal MS 2 B VII fol. 56r