The invention of gunpowder and its use in weaponry revolutionised medieval warfare, marking one of the most dramatic shifts in military history. What began as an accidental discovery in China around the 8th century soon transformed the strategies and outcomes of battles across the Middle Ages. From early rockets and grenades to the first cannons and superguns, gunpowder weapons reshaped the medieval battlefield in ways that would echo through history. Here are ten key moments that defined the medieval gunpowder revolution.
The First Formula for Fire Medicine
Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the Wujing Zongyao of 1044 AD – Wikimedia Commons
In 808, Qing Xuzi became the first person to record the recipe that makes gunpowder. Known as huo yao, which translates to ‘fire medicine,’ this explosive mixture was originally intended as part of an experiment to create new drugs. It contained six parts sulphur, six parts saltpetre and one part birthwort herb.
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Soon after, recipes for this mixture were coming with warnings, like this one:
Some have heated together sulfur, realgar, and saltpeter with honey; smoke [and flames] result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house burned down.
Rockets and Grenades – China’s Early Gunpowder Arsenal
An illustration of a fragmentation bomb from the 14th century Ming Dynasty book Huolongjing. The black dots represent iron pellets – Wikimedia Commons
Chinese inventor Tang Fu is credited with designing some of the first weapons to harness the power of gunpowder, including early forms of rockets and grenades. Devised around the year 1000, the explosive potential of gunpowder quickly caught the attention of military strategists across China, who saw the opportunity to turn this ‘fire medicine’ into a fearsome weapon on the battlefield.
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Roger Bacon and Gunpowder’s Arrival in Europe
A 14th-century depiction of a cannon
In 1267, the English scholar Roger Bacon became the first European to write about gunpowder. He described its incredible properties:
There is a child’s toy of sound and fire made in various parts of the world with powder of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal of hazelwood. This powder is enclosed in an instrument of parchment the size of a finger, and since this can make such a noise that it seriously distresses the ears of men… if an instrument of large size were used, no one could stand the terror of the noise and flash.
This marks the beginning of Europe’s fascination with gunpowder, setting the stage for its use in warfare.
The Xanadu Gun – The Oldest Survivor
The Xanadu Gun – photo by Qiushufang / Wikimedia Commons
The oldest surviving gun in existence, the Xanadu Gun, was manufactured in 1298. Weighing just over six kilograms and thirty-five centimetres in length, this ancient firearm carries inscriptions that include a serial number and manufacturing information, suggesting that gunmaking in China had already developed into a large-scale industry.
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Florence Fires its First Cannons
In 1326, Florence became one of the first European cities to manufacture cannons and iron balls. This marked the spread of gunpowder weaponry across the continent. Soon, other European states began stockpiling cannons, and by the end of the fourteenth century, gunpowder weapons were a common sight in European warfare.
The Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363 is one of the largest battles in Chinese history, involving hundreds of thousands of troops. The battle saw massive use of gunpowder weapons, including “fire bombs, fire guns, fire arrows, fire seeds, fire lances, iron bombs, and rockets.” The sheer variety of gunpowder-based weapons deployed shows how deeply entrenched this technology had become in Chinese military strategy.
Gunpowder Turns the Tide at Beverhoutsveld
The Battle of Beverhoutsveld depicted in a 15th century manuscript.
In 1382, the rebels of Ghent faced off against the Count of Flanders in the Battle of Beverhoutsveld. The rebels fired a volley of light artillery at the count’s troops, throwing them into disarray and turning the tide of the battle. This event is seen as the first successful European use of gunpowder weapons in warfare – a pivotal moment in European military history.
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Chinese Troops Pioneer the Counter-March Volley
Illustration of a 1639 Ming musketry volley formation.
In 1388, Chinese troops made use of a revolutionary technique called the counter-march volley. This method allowed one line of soldiers to fire while the other reloaded, creating a near-constant barrage of firepower. The effectiveness of this tactic would be recognised worldwide and adopted by armies across the globe in later centuries.
Europe’s Era of Superguns Begins
Mons Meg at Edinburgh Castle – Photo by Yatton / Wikimedia Commons
The early 15th century marked the beginning of Europe’s fascination with ‘superguns’ – massive cannons capable of unprecedented destruction. Among the most famous were Grose Bochse, Faule Mette, and Mons Meg. Pumhart von Steyr, built in Austria, weighed eight tons and could shoot a stone ball weighing 690 kg over 600 metres. These monstrous weapons represented the height of gunpowder technology in medieval Europe.
Fortresses Evolve to Withstand Gunpowder Assaults
Fortress of Salses – photo by H. Zell / Wikimedia Commons
The construction of the fortress of Salses at the French-Spanish border began in 1497. It serves as a prime example of the evolution of fortifications in response to gunpowder. With artillery now a major threat, medieval castles were no longer sufficient, and new designs like the star-shaped fortresses of the early modern period began to emerge.
These ten moments illustrate how gunpowder revolutionised warfare,changing how battles were fought and won. From the earliest recorded experiments to the colossal superguns of Europe, gunpowder reshaped the medieval world in profound ways. If you enjoyed this journey through the history of gunpowder, explore more articles that dive into the medieval military history.
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Top Image: Hand cannon lighted by a hot iron rod being fired from a stand, manuscript by Konrad Kyeser: Bellifortis. Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, 2° Cod. Ms. philos. 63 Cim. 1402-1404
The invention of gunpowder and its use in weaponry revolutionised medieval warfare, marking one of the most dramatic shifts in military history. What began as an accidental discovery in China around the 8th century soon transformed the strategies and outcomes of battles across the Middle Ages. From early rockets and grenades to the first cannons and superguns, gunpowder weapons reshaped the medieval battlefield in ways that would echo through history. Here are ten key moments that defined the medieval gunpowder revolution.
The First Formula for Fire Medicine
In 808, Qing Xuzi became the first person to record the recipe that makes gunpowder. Known as huo yao, which translates to ‘fire medicine,’ this explosive mixture was originally intended as part of an experiment to create new drugs. It contained six parts sulphur, six parts saltpetre and one part birthwort herb.
Soon after, recipes for this mixture were coming with warnings, like this one:
Some have heated together sulfur, realgar, and saltpeter with honey; smoke [and flames] result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house burned down.
Rockets and Grenades – China’s Early Gunpowder Arsenal
Chinese inventor Tang Fu is credited with designing some of the first weapons to harness the power of gunpowder, including early forms of rockets and grenades. Devised around the year 1000, the explosive potential of gunpowder quickly caught the attention of military strategists across China, who saw the opportunity to turn this ‘fire medicine’ into a fearsome weapon on the battlefield.
Roger Bacon and Gunpowder’s Arrival in Europe
In 1267, the English scholar Roger Bacon became the first European to write about gunpowder. He described its incredible properties:
There is a child’s toy of sound and fire made in various parts of the world with powder of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal of hazelwood. This powder is enclosed in an instrument of parchment the size of a finger, and since this can make such a noise that it seriously distresses the ears of men… if an instrument of large size were used, no one could stand the terror of the noise and flash.
This marks the beginning of Europe’s fascination with gunpowder, setting the stage for its use in warfare.
The Xanadu Gun – The Oldest Survivor
The oldest surviving gun in existence, the Xanadu Gun, was manufactured in 1298. Weighing just over six kilograms and thirty-five centimetres in length, this ancient firearm carries inscriptions that include a serial number and manufacturing information, suggesting that gunmaking in China had already developed into a large-scale industry.
Florence Fires its First Cannons
In 1326, Florence became one of the first European cities to manufacture cannons and iron balls. This marked the spread of gunpowder weaponry across the continent. Soon, other European states began stockpiling cannons, and by the end of the fourteenth century, gunpowder weapons were a common sight in European warfare.
See also: Gunpowder, Cannons, and Military History with Cliff Rogers
Gunpowder Dominates the Battle of Lake Poyang
The Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363 is one of the largest battles in Chinese history, involving hundreds of thousands of troops. The battle saw massive use of gunpowder weapons, including “fire bombs, fire guns, fire arrows, fire seeds, fire lances, iron bombs, and rockets.” The sheer variety of gunpowder-based weapons deployed shows how deeply entrenched this technology had become in Chinese military strategy.
Gunpowder Turns the Tide at Beverhoutsveld
In 1382, the rebels of Ghent faced off against the Count of Flanders in the Battle of Beverhoutsveld. The rebels fired a volley of light artillery at the count’s troops, throwing them into disarray and turning the tide of the battle. This event is seen as the first successful European use of gunpowder weapons in warfare – a pivotal moment in European military history.
Chinese Troops Pioneer the Counter-March Volley
In 1388, Chinese troops made use of a revolutionary technique called the counter-march volley. This method allowed one line of soldiers to fire while the other reloaded, creating a near-constant barrage of firepower. The effectiveness of this tactic would be recognised worldwide and adopted by armies across the globe in later centuries.
Europe’s Era of Superguns Begins
The early 15th century marked the beginning of Europe’s fascination with ‘superguns’ – massive cannons capable of unprecedented destruction. Among the most famous were Grose Bochse, Faule Mette, and Mons Meg. Pumhart von Steyr, built in Austria, weighed eight tons and could shoot a stone ball weighing 690 kg over 600 metres. These monstrous weapons represented the height of gunpowder technology in medieval Europe.
Fortresses Evolve to Withstand Gunpowder Assaults
The construction of the fortress of Salses at the French-Spanish border began in 1497. It serves as a prime example of the evolution of fortifications in response to gunpowder. With artillery now a major threat, medieval castles were no longer sufficient, and new designs like the star-shaped fortresses of the early modern period began to emerge.
These ten moments illustrate how gunpowder revolutionised warfare,changing how battles were fought and won. From the earliest recorded experiments to the colossal superguns of Europe, gunpowder reshaped the medieval world in profound ways. If you enjoyed this journey through the history of gunpowder, explore more articles that dive into the medieval military history.
Top Image: Hand cannon lighted by a hot iron rod being fired from a stand, manuscript by Konrad Kyeser: Bellifortis. Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, 2° Cod. Ms. philos. 63 Cim. 1402-1404
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