Delve into the pivotal figures of the Middle Ages whose enduring legacies shaped the course of history. From visionary leaders and profound scholars to prolific writers and formidable warriors, these individuals left an indelible mark on medieval society.
Spanning from the sixth to the fifteenth centuries, this curated list highlights five influential figures from each century, offering a comprehensive view across the entire era. Explore our selection of fifty (actually fifty-two) key figures who defined the medieval world and continue to inspire generations today.
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Sixth Century
Clovis I: Warrior King and Founder of Frankish Power (c.466-511)
The Baptism of Clovis depicted in a 14th-century manuscript – Bibliothèque nationale de France MS Français 2813, fol. 12v
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled in the fifth century, new powers emerged in Europe. One of the most significant figures of this era was Clovis I, a Frankish leader who first united his people and then conquered neighbouring regions. He created a state that spread over much of France, the Low Countries, and western Germany.
Clovis was not only the founder of the Merovingian Dynasty, which would rule for another 250 years, but he also converted (along with his people) to Roman Catholicism. This helped to establish that form of Christianity in Western Europe. As Katherine Scherman observed, Clovis was “a consummately successful king, the author of Frankish supremacy and a founder of modern France.”
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Boethius: Philosopher and Consolation in a Time of Troubles (c. 477 – 524)
Boethius depicted in a 15th-century manuscript – Unibibliothek Salzburg, M III 36
A Roman politician and official, Boethius made a name for himself as a writer. However, it would be his final work that made him famous. Unjustly imprisoned by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, Boethius wrote The Consolation of Philosophy while awaiting execution. This text on the philosophy of faith and reason became the most important philosophical work of the Middle Ages and continues to be widely read around the world.
Among his profound words are:
Balance out the good things and the bad that have happened in your life and you will have to acknowledge that you are still way ahead. You are unhappy because you have lost those things in which you took pleasure? But you can also take comfort in the likelihood that what is now making you miserable will also pass away.
Benedict of Nursia: The Father of Western Monasticism (480-548)
Benedict of Nursia is renowned as the founder of Western monasticism. His establishment of the Benedictine Order and formulation of the Benedictine Rule profoundly shaped medieval Christianity. Benedict initially pursued a solitary life of asceticism in Subiaco, where his disciplined yet practical approach attracted followers seeking spiritual guidance.
Central to Benedict’s influence was the Benedictine Rule, a blueprint for communal living and spiritual discipline within monastic communities. Emphasizing moderation, prayer, work, and obedience, the Rule promoted a balanced life of contemplation and labor. Benedictine monasteries, guided by this Rule, flourished across medieval Europe as centres of learning, agriculture, and faith, leaving an enduring mark on religious, cultural, and intellectual life.
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Justinian I: Reuniting the Roman Empire and Championing Law (482-565)
Mosaic of Justinian I Detail of a contemporary portrait mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna
The Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565, Justinian’s reign marked a revival of the Byzantine Empire. Militarily, Byzantine armies saw conquests in the Middle East, North Africa, and Italy, significantly expanding the empire. Just as importantly, his government undertook a major rewrite of Roman law codes, much of which has endured in the civil law of many countries today. Meanwhile, Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, with the impressive church of Hagia Sophia, became one of the most important cities of the medieval world.
Justinian’s rule had its supporters and detractors, including the contemporary writer Procopius, who presented two versions of the emperor. In one work, he praises Justinian for “taking over the State when it was harassed by disorder, has not only made it greater in extent, but also much more illustrious.” However, in another, he calls Justinian “deceitful, devious, false, hypocritical, two-faced, cruel, skilled in dissembling his thought, never moved to tears by either joy or pain, though he could summon them artfully at will when the occasion demanded, a liar always, not only offhand but in writing, and when he swore sacred oaths to his subjects in their very hearing.”
Khosrow I: Sassanid Emperor of Splendor (c.512 – 579)
Silver coin of Khosrow I – photo by TruthBeethoven / Wikimedia Commons
Khosrow I, also known as Khosrow Anushiruwan or Khosrow the Just, ruled as the Sassanid Emperor from around 531 to 579. He is celebrated as one of ancient Persia’s most illustrious rulers, distinguished for his military achievements, administrative reforms, and cultural patronage.
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During his reign, Khosrow I stabilized the Sassanid Empire by implementing significant administrative and military reforms. He successfully expanded Sassanid territories through strategic military campaigns, reaching into regions like Yemen and the Caucasus. His diplomatic skills were evident in the negotiation of the “Eternal Peace” with Emperor Justinian I in 532, which brought prolonged stability to the Eastern Roman-Persian frontier. Internally, Khosrow I fostered economic prosperity by overseeing infrastructure projects such as dams, bridges, and roads that facilitated trade and communication across the empire. Culturally, he promoted Persian literature and art, making his court a vibrant center of intellectual activity.
Khosrow I’s legacy as a just and capable ruler influenced subsequent Persian dynasties and left a lasting impact on the history of the ancient Near East, marking his reign as a pinnacle of Sassanid achievement and stability.
Seventh Century
Pope Gregory I: The Great – Reformer and Defender of the Faith (c.540 – 604)
Detail of a miniature of Gregory the Great writing – British Library, Harley MS 3011, fol. 69v.
Pope Gregory I, also known as Gregorius Anicius, ascended to the Papacy in 590 and left an indelible mark on the Church’s administration and mission. Renowned as one of only three popes to be titled ‘The Great,’ Gregory I undertook significant reforms that revitalized the Papacy’s administrative structure, ensuring its effectiveness and influence across Europe. His initiatives extended beyond organizational reforms; Gregory I emphasized missionary activities, dispatching missionaries to evangelize pagan peoples in Britain and elsewhere. He also reorganized the Church’s charitable efforts, aligning them more closely with its spiritual mission and ensuring they reached those most in need. Gregory I’s enduring influence in Papal history underscores his pivotal role in shaping the medieval Church and its outreach efforts.
Shōtoku Taishi: Prince and Reformer Who Shaped Japanese Culture (574-622)
13th-century painting of Prince Shōtoku with two attendants. Wikimedia Commons
Shōtoku Taishi, a pivotal figure in Japanese history, wielded significant influence despite never ascending to the imperial throne. Acting as the de facto ruler from 593 to 622, he laid the groundwork for a centralized government in Japan, marking a crucial shift towards greater political organization. Shōtoku’s reign was characterized by his embrace of Buddhism, which he introduced to Japan, fostering cultural and religious ties with China that would shape Japan’s future. His efforts not only strengthened governance but also paved the way for cultural exchange, earning him the moniker of the ‘Founder of Japan.’ Shōtoku Taishi’s legacy remains integral to Japan’s identity as the ‘Land of the Rising Sun,’ symbolizing its cultural and spiritual evolution during the medieval era.
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Muhammad: Prophet of Islam and Founder of a World Religion (570-632)
A 16th-century depiction of Muhammad and other Islamic figures – Wikimedia Commons
Muhammad ibn Abdullah, born in Mecca around 570, is revered as the final prophet and messenger of God in Islam. His life and teachings shaped the foundation of one of the world’s major religions, Islam. Raised in Mecca’s diverse religious and cultural environment, Muhammad began receiving revelations from God through the angel Gabriel at the age of 40. These revelations, compiled into the Quran, emphasized monotheism, social justice, and moral conduct, challenging the prevailing polytheistic beliefs and social norms of pre-Islamic Arabia.
After the migration to Medina in 622 (known as the Hijra), Muhammad became a leader not only in spiritual matters but also in establishing a unified Islamic community. He navigated conflicts and negotiated treaties, demonstrating both his spiritual guidance and diplomatic skills. Muhammad’s teachings and the Quran formed the basis for Islamic governance and ethics, influencing legal systems and societal norms across diverse cultures.
Today, Muhammad is revered as an exemplary model of compassion, humility, and devotion in Islamic faith and culture, his life and teachings guiding millions of Muslims worldwide in their spiritual and moral lives.
Taizong: The Emperor Who Established the Tang Dynasty’s Golden Age (599-649)
A Tang Dynasty depiction of Taizong – now part of the National Palace Museum collection in Taipei – Wikimedia Commons
Li Shimin, one of the co-founders of the Tang Dynasty in China, became emperor after his father’s death, ruling from 626 to 649. Taking on the name Taizong, he built an empire over much of East Asia, ushering in a golden age for Chinese history. Today, he remains an exemplar of a wise ruler and administrator. Reflecting on his reign, Taizong said:
I’ve learned the principles of good governance and put them into practice. Our country was going downhill, but it is now in good shape. Foreign barbarians used to invade China, but they are now our vassals. I’m very lucky, for I’ve done better than many rulers in history. I want to make sure that my rule has a good beginning and a good ending.
Ali: Fourth Caliph of Islam and Revered Figure (600-661)
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, the son-in-law and companion to Muhammad, was an important figure in Islam and the catalyst for a major rift in the Muslim community. After Muhammad’s death in 632, many believed Ali should succeed him, but he did not become Caliph until 656. His reign was marked by power struggles and civil war, ending with his assassination. The political disagreements over his claim to leadership eventually created the Sunni and Shia factions, the two largest branches of Islam.
Eighth Century
Wu Zetian: The Only Ruling Empress of China (624-705)
Tang Empress’ Travel painting in detail, depicting Wu Zetian and her attendants – Wikimedia Commons
For about fifty years, Wu Zetian was the most important person in China, first as the empress consort, then as empress dowager to two of her sons, and finally becoming the only woman in Chinese history to officially rule as Empress from 690 to 705. Her rule was marked by both increasing prosperity within China and military victories abroad, but also by growing corruption and a brutal secret police regime.
In the words of historian Ann Paludan, “Wu Zetian was an extraordinary woman, attractive, exceptionally gifted, politically astute, and an excellent judge of men. With single-minded determination, she overcame the opposition of the Confucian establishment through her own efforts, unique among palace women by not using her own family.”
Bede: The Venerable Bede – Scholar and Chronicler of Anglo-Saxon England (672-735)
Depiction of the Venerable Bede from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493.
Often called The Venerable Bede, this monk lived in northern England and developed a reputation as one of the leading scholars of his time. He wrote dozens of works on a range of subjects, including theology, science, and music. His use of the Anno Domini system of dating the years would prove influential toward its being adopted throughout Europe and then the wider world. Bede’s most famous work is Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (An Ecclesiastical History of the English People), the most important source of English history in the early Middle Ages, and is widely studied and praised by modern historians.
Xuanzong: The Emperor Who Witnessed Tang Dynasty Glory and Turmoil (685-762)
Beginning his 44-year reign in 712, this emperor at first put an end to state corruption and brought in better administration. “He founded the Imperial Academy of Letters,” writes Ann Paludan, “and the atmosphere at court—an harmonious blend of Confucian rationalism, Daoist individualism and an openness to new ideas—attracted scholars, painters, poets, and musicians.” There was even a remarkable engineering feat—in 724 the Pu Jin Bridge was built to cross the Yellow River.
However, Xuanzong’s reign would be viewed as the beginning of the decline of the Tang Dynasty, first with the defeat at the Battle of Talas, and then the An Lushan Rebellion, which lasted from 755 to 763. Xuanzong would retire as emperor in 756.
Li Bai (701-762) and Du Fu (712-770): Titans of Tang Dynasty Poetry
The writings of Du Fu – photo by or Daderot / Wikimedia Commons
The Tang Dynasty is often considered one of the high points in Chinese civilization, with the country flourishing economically and culturally. It is not surprising that several of the most important people on this list came from this period, including Li Bai and Du Fu.
About a thousand poems Li Bai wrote have survived to the present day, such as “Quiet Night Thoughts”:
Before my bed there’s a pool of light I wonder if it’s frost on the ground Looking up, I find the moon bright Then bowing my head, I drown in homesickness.
With Du Fu, nearly 1500 of his poems still exist. He was deeply affected by the An Lushan Rebellion, even being taken prisoner at one point, and his writings reflected this, including “Facing Snow”:
After the battle, many new ghosts cry, The solitary old man worries and grieves. Ragged clouds are low amid the dusk, Snow dances quickly in the whirling wind. The ladle’s cast aside, the cup not green, The stove still looks as if a fiery red. To many places, communications are broken, I sit, but cannot read my books for grief.
The reason we place these two men together is because of the deep friendship they shared with each other, first meeting in the year 744. They would write to each other for the rest of their lives, including poems such as this “joke” by Li Bai:
I ran into Du Fu by a Rice Grain Mountain, In a bamboo hat with the sun at high noon. Hasn’t he got awfully thin since our parting? It must be the struggle of writing his poems.
Al-Mansur: Founder of Baghdad and Builder of the Abbasid Caliphate (c.714-775)
Al-Mansur, born Abu Ja’far Abdallah ibn Muhammad, is renowned as the co-founder of the Abbasid Dynasty and the mastermind behind the establishment of Baghdad. His rise to power began with his pivotal role in overthrowing the Umayyad Caliphate, marking a significant shift in Islamic governance. Upon the death of his brother Saffah in 754, al-Mansur ascended to become the second Abbasid caliph, consolidating and solidifying the dynasty’s authority across the Islamic world. His strategic vision and leadership were instrumental in shaping the Abbasid Caliphate into a formidable political and cultural force during the medieval period.
Ninth Century
Harun al-Rashid: The Caliph of “One Thousand and One Nights” Fame (786-809)
A coin of Harun al-Rashid – photo by Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com
If the first few Abbasid caliphs established this dynasty, it was Harun al-Rashid who made it famous. Reigning from 786 to 809, this caliph had mixed results militarily but has been credited with making Baghdad a center of culture and learning. Harun was a major figure in the establishment of Bayt al-Ḥikmah (House of Wisdom) as a library and educational center that attracted leading scholars. Furthermore, he promoted much music and poetry and developed a reputation that would even lead to him becoming a key character in the One Thousand and One Nights.
Harun al-Rashid also made diplomatic alliances with the Tang Dynasty in China and the Carolingians in Western Europe. As one chronicler concluded, “so great were the splendor and riches of his reign, such was its prosperity, that this period has been called “the Honeymoon.”
Charlemagne: Forger of a European Empire (742-814)
A picture from the 15th century depicting the emperor Charlemagne.
After becoming King of the Franks, Charles would spend the next 46 years building a state that stretched across much of western and central Europe. His power would rise until he would be crowned Holy Roman Emperor in the year 800.
The Carolingian Empire founded by Charlemagne would dominate Europe for most of the ninth century, and the institutions they created or revived would endure for centuries afterward. Moreover, this era would see a ‘Renaissance’ in learning and culture, as Charlemagne’s court would become a home for scholars and artists.
Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, is remembered as one of the most important people in European history, even being called the “Father of Europe”. Historian Janet L. Nelson describes him as “a man who was by any standards extraordinary: a many-sided character whose sixty-five years of life and doings were driven by unremitting physical energy and intellectual curiosity.”
Kūkai: Bringer of Esoteric Buddhism to Japan (774-835)
Painting of Kūkai from the Shingon Hassozō, dating to the 13th or 14th century – Wikimedia Commons
Kūkai, known as ‘The Grand Master,’ played a pivotal role in the spread and development of Buddhism in Japan during the medieval period. Born in 774, he embarked on a transformative journey to China in 804 to deepen his understanding of Buddhism. Upon his return to Japan in 806, Kūkai founded the Shingon school of Buddhism, which emphasized esoteric teachings and rituals. This school quickly gained prominence among Japan’s elite, influencing religious practices and cultural development.
Kūkai’s contributions extended beyond doctrine. He initiated the construction of significant temples, most notably the complex at Mount Kōya, which remains a UNESCO World Heritage Site today. These temples became centers of learning and spiritual practice, fostering the growth of Buddhism and its integration into Japanese society. Kūkai’s enduring legacy lies in his scholarly pursuits, religious reforms, and the establishment of institutions that shaped the religious landscape of medieval Japan.
Al-Jahiz: The Polymath: Thinker, Writer, and Zoologist of the Abbasid Golden Age (776-869)
A page from al-Jāḥiẓ’s Book of Animals depicting an ostrich – Wikimedia Commons
Al-Jahiz, famously known as ‘The Bug-Eyed’, was a prolific Arabic writer and scholar whose intellectual pursuits spanned a wide array of subjects. Born in 776, he dedicated over fifty years of his life in Baghdad to writing and scholarship, leaving behind a remarkable legacy of at least 140 works. Al-Jahiz’s diverse interests encompassed fields as varied as natural history, linguistics, sociology, and even humour.
His writings covered an impressive range of topics, from detailed observations on animals and their behaviors to discussions on eloquence and the complexities of racial identity. Al-Jahiz also delved into philosophical inquiries, pondering questions such as the advantages of being left-handed versus right-handed. His keen observations and thoughtful analyses earned him recognition not only as a prolific writer but also as a profound thinker whose insights continue to resonate in Arabic literature and intellectual discourse.
ʿArīb al-Ma’mūnīya: The Superstar: Celebrated Singer and Poet (797-890)
How ʿArīb al-Ma’mūnīya may have looked like – drawing created by Rocio Espin and Julia Lillo
This is the person who would be the least known to the modern world, yet was probably the most famous person in the world when she lived. You could call ʿArīb the diva of the Middle Ages, as she was a singer, poet, composer, calligrapher, chess player, and socialite. Sold into slavery at the age of 10, music would be the career that would bring her to the courts of the Abbasid elite. Anecdotes of her life and many relationships—eight rulers were among her lovers—reveal a woman with sharp wit and keen intelligence.
To you treachery is a virtue you have many faces and ten tongues. I’m surprised my heart still clings to you in spite of what you put me through.
ʿArīb would not only survive the fractious conflicts within the Abbasid court but became fabulously wealthy and long-lived. In the words of one admirer:
She is the sun and the other women are stars If she appears, they set and become invisible.
Tenth Century
Abu Bakr al-Razi: The Rational Physician: A Pioneer of Medicine in the Islamic World (c.865-c.925)
European depiction of the Al-Razi, from a 13th-century manuscript – Wikimedia Commons
Known in the Western world as Rhazes, he is considered a hugely important figure in the history of medicine. Serving as the head of hospitals in Baghdad and Rey, al-Razi would write over two hundred works related to the field, and was known for his work in experimental medicine, the use of pharmacies, pediatrics, obstetrics, and ophthalmology. He was also an important writer on medical ethics and is known for this statement:
The doctor’s aim is to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies.
Al-Razi is also known for works in alchemy, metaphysics, and philosophy.
Rollo: From Raider to Founder of Normandy (died between 928-933)
Rollo depicted in a 13th-century manuscript
Rollo, a prominent Norse warrior and leader, cemented his place in history through a pivotal agreement in 911 with the King of the West Franks. This agreement granted Rollo and his followers lands along the northern coast of present-day France, marking the beginning of Norman rule in the region. As the first ruler of Normandy, Rollo oversaw the transformation of this territory from a domain of seafaring raiders into a significant political entity in medieval Europe.
Under Rollo’s leadership and that of his descendants, Normandy flourished and evolved into a powerful player in both French and English politics within a few generations. The Normans not only consolidated their control over the region but also extended their influence across neighboring territories, leaving a lasting impact on the political landscape of medieval Europe. Rollo’s legacy as the founder of Normandy continues to be remembered for shaping the course of history in the region and beyond.
Abd al-Rahman III: Caliph of Córdoba: Unifying Iberia and Fostering a Cultural Golden Age (890-961)
Halfway through his nearly five-decade reign, Abd al-Rahman III established the Caliphate of Córdoba. This caliphate ruled over a vast territory, encompassing much of Iberia and parts of North Africa. Under his leadership, the city of Córdoba flourished. Its population soared to an estimated 400,000, making it one of the largest cities in the world. This prosperity fueled Córdoba’s rise as a major center of learning and culture.
Despite his achievements, Abd al-Rahman III held a surprisingly introspective view of his life and reign. He wrote:
I have now reigned for over fifty years in victory or peace. Beloved by my subjects, dreaded by my enemies, and respected by my allies. Riches and honors, power and pleasure, have awaited my call. No earthly blessing seems to have been absent from my happiness. Yet, in diligently counting the days of pure and genuine happiness that have fallen to my lot, they amount to only fourteen. Oh, man! Place not your confidence in this present world!
This passage reveals a thoughtful leader who, despite his outward success, recognized the limitations of worldly pursuits.
Otto I: Holy Roman Emperor and Defender of Christendom (912-973
Otto depicted in the early twelfth century – Corpus Christi, Cambridge, Ms 373, fol. 42v
Otto I, also known as Otto the Great, earned his moniker through a combination of impressive military victories and his political prowess in uniting the fractured German states into a cohesive kingdom. His reign witnessed a pivotal moment in European history with his decisive victory at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. This battle effectively halted the Magyars’ westward expansion and secured his reputation as a defender of Christendom. Otto’s ambitions extended beyond German borders, and he also led successful campaigns into parts of Italy, further solidifying his power. The dynasty he established, the Ottonian dynasty, would endure for nearly a century after his death. Significantly, the Ottonians actively fostered artistic and scholarly pursuits, laying the groundwork for what would later be considered a ‘renaissance’ within the Holy Roman Empire.
Taizu – Reuniting China and Laying a Strong Foundation (937-76)
Zhao Kuangyin, who later took the regnal name Taizu, emerged as a powerful military leader during a tumultuous period in Chinese history. China had been fractured into a collection of competing dynasties and kingdoms for decades. Through a strategic coup d’état, Zhao Kuangyin seized control in 960 and ascended the throne as the first emperor of the Song Dynasty.
Taizu’s reign (960-976) was marked by significant achievements. He successfully reunified much of China, bringing a period of stability and prosperity to the war-torn nation. His leadership extended beyond military conquest. Taizu enacted significant reforms to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the government. He also championed advancements in academic pursuits, fostering a flourishing intellectual environment. The Song Dynasty, established by Taizu, would endure for over three centuries, leaving a lasting legacy on Chinese history.
Eleventh century
Ferdowsi Tusi: The Immortal Voice of Iranian Epic (940-1019/1025)
A scene from the Shahnameh, depicted in a 16th-century manuscript – Wikimedia Commons
Abul-Qâsem Ferdowsi Tusi, or simply Ferdowsi, was a towering figure in Persian literature. His magnum opus, the Shahnameh (Book of Kings), stands as a cornerstone of Iranian cultural identity. This epic poem, consisting of roughly 50,000 verses, weaves together myths, legends, and historical accounts to chronicle the Iranian world from its creation to the Islamic conquest. Over three decades, Ferdowsi poured his heart and soul into this monumental work, solidifying his place as the preeminent voice of Iranian epic tradition. The Shahnameh’s influence extends far beyond Iran, resonating throughout Central Asia and inspiring countless artists and writers across the centuries.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna): The Philosopher-Physician of the Islamic Golden Age (980-1037)
Ibn Sina, also known by the Latinized name Avicenna, was a polymath who flourished during the Islamic Golden Age. Born in Central Asia (present-day Uzbekistan) around 980, he excelled in various fields throughout his life. Ibn Sina’s brilliance was evident early on, and he mastered subjects like medicine by his teenage years. His vast knowledge and medical expertise led him to become a court physician for the Buyid Dynasty, a powerful dynasty ruling parts of Iran and surrounding regions.
Ibn Sina’s scholarly pursuits were prolific. He authored over 450 works in his lifetime, encompassing a remarkable range of subjects including philosophy, physics, and psychology. Many of these works, though only around 240 have survived, left an enduring impact on Islamic intellectual discourse. However, Ibn Sina’s most famous contribution is undoubtedly The Canon of Medicine. Completed in 1025, this medical encyclopedia remained the preeminent source of medical knowledge for centuries to come, influencing medical practices well into the 16th and 17th centuries in both the Islamic world and Europe.
Rajendra Chola I: A Maritime Emperor Who Forged a Chola Empire (c.971-1044)
Seal of the Chola King Rajendra I – Wikimedia Commons
Rajendra Chola I wasn’t just a successor; he was a force to be reckoned with even before ascending the Chola throne in 1014. His impressive military career played a key role in expanding the empire’s influence across South India. Upon becoming emperor, Rajendra’s reign ushered in a new era of Chola power. He led groundbreaking naval campaigns, venturing across the Bay of Bengal to conquer territories in present-day Malaysia and Indonesia.
The reigns of Rajendra Chola I and his father, Rajaraja Chola I, are considered the golden age of the Chola Dynasty (c. 848 – 1279). During this period, Chola merchants dominated trade across the Indian Ocean, establishing a vast maritime network. Rajendra further cemented his legacy by establishing a new capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, solidifying the Chola Empire’s position as a dominant power in the region.
Gregory VII: The Reformer Pope Who Clashed with Emperors (1073-1085)
Born Hildebrand of Sovana, the son of a humble blacksmith, Gregory VII’s path to the papacy was remarkable. By the late 1040s, he had risen through the ranks of the Church hierarchy, becoming a trusted advisor within the Papacy. In 1073, he ascended to the highest office, taking the name Gregory VII.
Pope Gregory VII is a pivotal figure in Church history. He championed a series of reforms aimed at strengthening the Papacy and combating corruption within the Church. A central tenet of his reforms was the concept of papal supremacy, asserting the authority of the Pope over secular rulers. This directly challenged the power of the Holy Roman Emperor, sparking the Investiture Controversy, a decades-long struggle over who would appoint bishops – the Pope or the Emperor. The most dramatic episode of this conflict was the Walk to Canossa in 1077, where a humbled Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV, waited for days outside the gates of a castle to seek forgiveness from the Pope.
Gregory VII’s unwavering commitment to reform, despite the fierce opposition he faced, laid the groundwork for a strengthened papacy. His legacy extended far beyond his reign, ushering in an era where popes wielded significant political influence throughout the Middle Ages.
William I: From Duke of Normandy to King of England (c. 1027 – 1087)
William as depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry during the Battle of Hastings, lifting his helm to show that he is still alive
Born William the Bastard due to his illegitimate birth around 1027, William’s early life was far from promising. He ascended the Dukedom of Normandy as a mere child in 1035, facing rebellions and challenges to his authority. Yet, William proved to be a resourceful and tenacious leader. He overcame these obstacles, consolidating his power and forging a strong Normandy.
William’s greatest achievement, however, came in 1066. Following the death of the English king, Edward the Confessor, William contested the throne with a rival claimant, Harold Godwinson. Decisively defeating Harold’s forces at the Battle of Hastings, William secured the English crown and earned the moniker “William the Conqueror.”
William’s coronation marked a turning point in English history. He established a powerful Norman state that encompassed both England and Normandy, forever altering the political landscape of Britain. His reign ushered in a period of profound change, characterized by the introduction of a new feudal system and a Norman aristocracy. Despite facing rebellions, William successfully consolidated his control over England, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to shape the nation today.
Twelfth Century
Abelard & Héloïse: A Love Story of Passion, Intellect, and Tragedy in Medieval France (1079-1142 & c.1100-1163)
Abelard and Heloise by Edmund Blair Leighton
Peter Abelard was a well-known scholar in France when he became the tutor to Héloïse in 1116. As her tutor, Abelard’s admiration for Héloïse’s intellect quickly turned into love. Their passionate romance, which included a secret marriage and the birth of a child, ended in tragedy when Abelard was castrated by Héloïse’s enraged uncle. Separated, Abelard and Héloïse spent the rest of their lives in monasteries, but their love persisted through letters.
These letters are now seen as a profound documentation of their relationship, showcasing their deep intellectual and emotional bond. Abelard continued his scholarly pursuits, writing philosophical and theological works that influenced medieval thought. Héloïse, on the other hand, became an abbess and was known for her intelligence and leadership. Their story remains one of the most enduring and tragic love stories from the Middle Ages, capturing the complexities of passion, intellect, and faith.
Li Qingzhao: Master of Song Dynasty Poetry and Champion of Artistic Legacy (1084-1156)
Portrait of Li Qingzhao kept at the Palace Museum, Beijing – Wikimedia Commons
Although only about a hundred of her poems have survived, Li Qingzhao is considered one of the greatest poets in Chinese history. Her poetry reflects the range of human emotions and experiences, from the joys of life to the sorrows of exile. Her early works often celebrated the pleasures of wine and the beauty of nature. However, her later works took on a more somber tone after she was forced to flee her home due to war, and after the death of her beloved husband.
Li’s writing is noted for its vivid imagery and emotional depth, capturing moments of personal and historical significance. Her influence on Chinese literature is profound, as she set a standard for lyrical poetry that emphasized personal expression and introspection. Despite the limited number of her surviving works, her legacy endures, and she is celebrated as a pioneer of female literary expression in a male-dominated cultural landscape.
Here is her poem, ‘Joy of Wine’:
I remember in Hsi T’ing All the many times We got lost in the sunset, Happy with wine, And could not find our way back. When the evening came, Exhausted with pleasure, We turned our boat. By mistake we found ourselves even deeper In the clusters of lotus blossoms, And startled the gulls and egrets From the sand bars. They crowded into the air And hastily flapped away To the opposite shore.
Hildegard of Bingen: Mystic, Visionary, and Polymath of the Middle Ages (c.1098-1179)
Illumination from the Liber Scivias showing Hildegard receiving a vision and dictating to her scribe and secretary
A mystic, writer, and abbess, Hildegard of Bingen was a powerful personality within the Catholic Church during the twelfth century. She claimed to have visions from a young age, which she later documented in her writings. These visions, along with her theological insights, established her as a respected spiritual authority. Through her extensive correspondence with many church and political figures, Hildegard’s influence spread across Europe, and she became a significant figure in religious and intellectual circles.
Hildegard’s contributions were not limited to theology; she wrote prolifically on medicine, philosophy, music, and even plays. Her works on natural history and medicinal practices were particularly ahead of their time, blending scientific observation with spiritual insight. Today, Hildegard remains a widely-read spiritual figure, and her music, writings, and holistic approach to health continue to inspire contemporary audiences.
Minamoto no Yoshitsune: Legendary Warrior and Symbol of Samurai Spirit (c.1159-1189)
A 19th-century depiction of Minamoto no Yoshitsune – Wikimedia Commons
One of the most famous samurai warriors in Japanese history, Minamoto no Yoshitsune was a successful military commander in the 1180s. He played a crucial role in the Genpei War, helping to secure the Minamoto clan’s victory over the Taira clan, which led to the establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate. Yoshitsune’s military prowess and strategic genius became legendary, and his life story has been romanticized in numerous literary and artistic works.
Despite his military success, Yoshitsune’s life was marked by tragedy and betrayal. His older half-brother, Minamoto no Yoritomo, who became the first shogun, saw Yoshitsune as a threat and eventually turned against him. Forced to flee, Yoshitsune’s story ended in his tragic death, but his legacy lived on. His legend grew through works like The Tale of the Heike, making him a leading example of Japanese martial culture and an enduring symbol of loyalty and heroism.
Saladin – Warrior Against the Crusades (c.1137-1193)
Imaginary encounter between Richard I and Saladin, 13th century manuscript
Yusuf ibn Ayyub ibn Shadi, better known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Syria. Born in Tikrit, Iraq, Saladin rose to prominence through his military campaigns and statesmanship. He is best known for his role in the Crusades, particularly for recapturing Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187. His victory at the Battle of Hattin is considered a turning point in the Crusades, showcasing his strategic acumen and leadership.
Saladin’s reputation extends beyond his military achievements. He is remembered for his chivalry, generosity, and fairness, even by his adversaries. His treatment of defeated Crusaders was marked by clemency and respect, earning him admiration in both Western and Middle Eastern history. Saladin’s legacy as a unifier and a just ruler endures, making him one of the most respected figures of the medieval Islamic world.
Depiction of Maimonides teaching students about the ‘measure of man’ in an illuminated manuscript. Wikimedia Commons
Moses ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides, is the leading Jewish figure of the Middle Ages. Born in Córdoba, Spain, he spent much of his life in Morocco and Egypt. As a polymath, Maimonides wrote extensively on a wide range of topics, including Jewish law, philosophy, medicine, and science. His most famous work, The Guide for the Perplexed, addresses the conflicts between religious faith and rational thought, offering insights that continue to be relevant today.
In addition to his scholarly contributions, Maimonides served as the personal physician to Saladin, reflecting his prominence in both the Jewish and Islamic worlds. His works have had a lasting impact on Jewish thought, particularly his codification of Jewish law in Mishneh Torah. Maimonides’ integration of Aristotelian philosophy with Jewish theology set a foundation for future philosophical inquiry and established him as a central figure in medieval intellectual history.
Jayavarman VII: The Great King of Angkor (c.1122-1218)
Bust of Jayavarman VII, at the Guimet Museum – photo by Suzan Black / Wikimedia Commons
The most powerful king of the Khmer Empire, Jayavarman VII, reigned during the empire’s zenith. Known for his extensive building projects, he constructed numerous temples, roads, hospitals, and a new capital city, Angkor Thom. These projects were not only architectural marvels but also served to consolidate his rule and enhance the welfare of his people. Under his reign, the city of Angkor became a bustling metropolis with as many as a million inhabitants.
Jayavarman VII’s reign is also noted for his devout Buddhism, which influenced his policies and the art and culture of the Khmer Empire. He promoted Mahayana Buddhism, and his reign saw the construction of the Bayon temple, famous for its smiling faces and intricate carvings. The legacy of Jayavarman VII’s rule is evident in the enduring cultural and architectural heritage of Cambodia, making him one of the most significant figures in Southeast Asian history.
Chinggis Khan: Founder of the Mongol Empire (1162-1227)
Chinggis in a 14th-century Yuan era album; now located in the National Palace Museum, Taipei
Temüjin, who would become known as Chinggis Khan, was a Mongol warrior who united the fragmented Mongol tribes and established a powerful empire that spanned much of Asia. Under his leadership, the Mongols conquered vast territories, including parts of China, Central Asia, and even Eastern Europe. Chinggis Khan’s military strategies, adaptability, and ruthless efficiency were key to his success, transforming the Mongols into a formidable force.
Chinggis Khan’s impact extended beyond his conquests. He implemented innovative governance structures, promoted trade and communication across the Silk Road, and fostered cultural exchange between East and West. His legacy is complex, as he is remembered both for the destruction his conquests wrought and for the unification and modernization he brought to the vast regions under Mongol control. His successors expanded the Mongol Empire to its greatest extent, making it the largest contiguous land empire in history.
Rumi: Sufi Mystic Poet (1207-1273)
Bowl of Reflections with Rumi’s poetry, early 13th century. Brooklyn Museum. – Wikimedia Commons
Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī, born in present-day Afghanistan, eventually settled in the Seljuk Sultanate of Anatolia. As a Sufi mystic and teacher, Rumi gained many followers through his teachings and poetry. His works, deeply rooted in themes of love, spirituality, and human connection, have transcended cultural and religious boundaries, resonating with audiences worldwide. One of his well-known poems, translated by @sharghzadeh, reads:
Today we’re broken, broken, like every other day, Open not the door of worry, grab the lute and play! There are one hundred kinds of prayers and prostrations When one faces their beloved’s beauty as they pray.
Rumi’s influence extends far beyond his lifetime. His poetry, which includes the Masnavi and the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi, remains widely read and admired for its profound insights into the human condition. His ideas about love and the divine continue to inspire people of various faiths and backgrounds. As Shahram Shiva notes, “Rumi is able to verbalize the highly personal and often confusing world of personal growth and development in a very clear and direct fashion.” Today, his poems are heard in various cultural and religious settings, illustrating his enduring appeal.
Thomas Aquinas: Influential Medieval Theologian (c.1225-1274)
Thomas Aquinas depicted on an altarpiece in Ascoli Piceno, Italy, by Carlo Crivelli
Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican friar and scholar, worked as a theologian and philosopher in both Italy and France. His efforts were primarily focused on integrating Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, culminating in his magnum opus, Summa Theologiae. This work, an extensive compilation of theological and philosophical knowledge, is considered one of the most significant writings in the history of the Catholic Church.
Aquinas’ influence extends beyond religious thought; his ethical writings have also had a profound impact on Western philosophy. He developed the concept of natural law, which posits that moral principles are derived from human nature and reason. His ideas laid the groundwork for later developments in moral and political philosophy. Recognized as a Doctor of the Church, Aquinas remains a central figure in theological and philosophical education, with his works continuing to be studied and revered by scholars and believers alike.
Fourteenth Century
Dante Alighieri: The Father of the Italian Language and Author of the Divine Comedy (c.1265-1321)
Dante Alighieri, attributed to Giotto, in the chapel of the Bargello palace in Florence.
Dante Alighieri, a Florentine writer and poet, is best known for his epic work The Divine Comedy, which is considered one of the most important pieces of Italian literature. Written in the early 14th century, this poem narrates Dante’s journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven, reflecting his views on religion, philosophy, and politics. The Divine Comedy has had a profound influence on the literary world, shaping the Italian language and literature.
Dante’s work extends beyond his famous epic. He was also a significant political figure, involved in the complex politics of Florence. His political views led to his exile, during which he wrote much of The Divine Comedy. Through his writings, Dante provided a detailed commentary on the moral and social issues of his time. His ability to blend personal experience with universal themes has made his work timeless, earning him the title of “the supreme poet” in Italy.
Marco Polo: The Venetian Explorer Who Opened the East to Europe (1254-1324)
Marco Polo with elephants and camels arriving at Hormuz from India – BNF Ms Fr 2810 f.14v
A Venetian merchant, Marco Polo spent over 20 years traveling through Asia, reaching the court of Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler of China. His extensive travels, which took him through various parts of Asia, were documented in Book of the Marvels of the World. This book, also known as The Travels of Marco Polo, provided Europeans with one of the first detailed accounts of the vast and diverse cultures of Asia, sparking European interest in the wider world.
Marco Polo’s writings significantly influenced the age of exploration. His detailed descriptions of the wealth and splendour of the East inspired many explorers, including Christopher Columbus, to seek new trade routes and opportunities. Polo’s accounts also provided valuable insights into the geography, politics, and economics of the regions he visited, contributing to the broader understanding of the world during the Middle Ages.
Ibn Taymiyya: The Influential Islamic Scholar Who Challenged Religious Authority (1263-1328)
A controversial Islamic scholar based in Damascus, Ibn Taymiyya often criticized the political and religious elite of the Mamluk Empire. He was a prolific writer, producing works on theology, jurisprudence, and philosophy that challenged the established norms of his time. His ideas often put him at odds with the authorities, leading to multiple imprisonments. Despite this, his writings continued to gain followers and have found new audiences since the nineteenth century.
Ibn Taymiyya’s influence extends into contemporary times, particularly among conservative Muslim groups. His emphasis on returning to the fundamentals of Islam and rejecting innovations (bid’ah) has resonated with those advocating for a more orthodox approach to the faith. His works have been extensively studied and debated, making him an influential thinker for conservative Muslim beliefs and shaping modern Islamic thought.
Mansa Musa: The Wealthy King Who Expanded the Mali Empire (reigned c.1312-1337)
Musa depicted holding an Imperial Golden Globe in the 1375 Catalan Atlas – Wikimedia Commons
Mansa Musa, the ruler of the Mali Empire, is often remembered as one of the wealthiest individuals in history. His reign marked a period of prosperity and cultural development in West Africa. Mansa Musa expanded the empire, making it a center of trade, wealth, and learning. His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325-26 is particularly famous; his extravagant spending and generosity during the journey left a lasting impression on the regions he passed through, notably affecting the economy of Egypt for over a decade.
Mansa Musa’s contributions to the Mali Empire extended beyond wealth. He established Timbuktu as a major centre of Islamic learning and culture, building mosques, universities, and libraries. His support for education and the arts helped to cultivate a rich cultural heritage that lasted long after his reign. Mansa Musa’s legacy as a powerful and benevolent ruler continues to be celebrated, symbolizing the wealth and sophistication of medieval Africa.
Geoffrey Chaucer: The Father of English Literature and Author of The Canterbury Tales (c.1340-1400)
15th century depiction of Chaucer – BL MS Royal 17 D. VI, f.93v
Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, is often regarded as the father of English literature. His work, written in Middle English, includes a collection of stories told by pilgrims traveling to Canterbury, showcasing a wide range of characters and social classes. The Canterbury Tales is celebrated for its rich language, vivid descriptions, and keen observations of human nature, reflecting Chaucer’s deep understanding of society.
Chaucer’s influence on the English language is profound. He is credited with introducing new vocabulary and phrases, enriching the language and making it more expressive. His works provided a foundation for future English literature, and his innovative use of the vernacular helped establish English as a legitimate literary language. Chaucer’s legacy endures through his contributions to literature and his impact on the development of the English language.
Fifteenth Century
Christine de Pizan: Championing Women’s Rights Through Literature (1364-c.1430)
Christine de Pizan in her study – by Master of the Cite Des Dames
Christine de Pizan, born in Venice and later residing in France, is recognized as the first professional female writer of the Middle Ages. Following the death of her husband in 1389, she turned to writing to support her family, producing works that ranged from poetry to political treatises. Christine’s most notable work, The Book of the City of Ladies, is a pioneering feminist text that defends and celebrates the contributions of women to society.
Christine‘s writing was deeply influenced by her connections to the French royal court, where she found patrons who supported her work. She used her platform to address issues of gender inequality and to advocate for the education and empowerment of women. Her thoughtful and eloquent arguments have earned her a place as an important feminist thinker, whose ideas continue to resonate in discussions about gender and society.
Joan of Arc: The Maid of Orléans Who Led France in War (1412-1431)
Joan of Arc in the protocol of the Parliament of Paris (1429). Drawing by Clément de Fauquembergue. French National Archives
Joan of Arc, a national hero in France, led French armies against the English in the Hundred Years’ War as a teenager. Born to a peasant family, Joan claimed to have received visions from saints instructing her to support Charles VII and help drive the English out of France. Her military leadership and inspiring presence led to several crucial victories, including the lifting of the Siege of Orléans, which bolstered French morale and turned the tide of the war.
Captured by the Burgundians and handed over to the English, Joan was put on trial for charges including heresy and cross-dressing. Despite her eloquent defence, she was convicted and burned at the stake in 1431. Joan’s martyrdom only enhanced her legend, and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. Her life and legacy have made her a symbol of courage, faith, and patriotism, and she remains an enduring icon in French history and beyond.
Zheng He: The “Ming Dynasty Explorer” Who Sailed the Seas (1371-1433/5)
The pet giraffe of the Sultan of Bengal, brought from the Somali Ajuran Empire, and later taken to China in the year 1415. Wikimedia Commons
A court official in the Ming government, Zheng He commanded seven maritime expeditions from 1405 to 1433, involving massive fleets that sailed into the South China Sea, Indian Ocean, and as far as the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa. These voyages demonstrated Chinese naval power and facilitated trade and diplomatic relations with numerous countries. Zheng He’s expeditions brought back valuable goods, exotic animals, and tributes, enhancing the prestige of the Ming Dynasty.
Zheng He’s legacy extends beyond his role as an explorer. His voyages symbolized China’s outreach and influence during the early 15th century, showcasing its technological and navigational advancements. Despite the eventual cessation of these expeditions, Zheng He’s achievements remain a source of pride in Chinese history, reflecting the country’s historical contributions to global exploration and cultural exchange.
Filippo Brunelleschi: The Architect Who Built the Dome of Florence Cathedral (1377-1446)
Filippo Brunelleschi in an anonymous portrait of the 2nd half of the 15th century
Filippo Brunelleschi, with his innovative design and construction of the dome at Florence’s Cathedral, became a leading architect and engineer of the Renaissance. The dome, a feat of engineering and artistic genius, remains a landmark of Florence and a testament to Brunelleschi’s ingenuity. His work on the dome not only solved a significant architectural challenge but also set new standards for construction techniques and aesthetic design.
Brunelleschi’s contributions to art and architecture extend beyond the dome. He is credited with the development of linear perspective, which revolutionized the way space and depth were represented in visual art. This breakthrough had a profound impact on Renaissance art, influencing countless artists and shaping the course of Western art history. Brunelleschi’s blend of artistry, mathematics, and engineering established him as a pivotal figure in the transition from medieval to modern architectural practices.
Johannes Gutenberg: The Inventor Who Changed the World with the Printing Press (1398-1468)
Gutenberg Bible, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Photo by Raul654 / Wikimedia Commons
In the 1440s, Johannes Gutenberg invented and developed the movable-type printing press, transforming the production of books and the dissemination of knowledge. His invention made it possible to produce books more quickly and affordably than ever before, democratizing access to information and ideas. The Gutenberg Bible, printed in the 1450s, is one of the earliest major books produced using movable type, showcasing the potential of his revolutionary technology.
Gutenberg’s printing press had a profound impact on the spread of knowledge and the course of history. It facilitated the spread of the Renaissance, Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution by making books and pamphlets more accessible to a wider audience. The ability to mass-produce written works transformed education, religion, science, and politics, laying the foundation for the modern knowledge-based society. Gutenberg’s invention is now considered one of the most significant technological advancements in history.
Further Thoughts
There were many people that could have made this list, including Eleanor of Aquitaine, Saint Francis of Assisi, and Emperor Lalibela of Ethiopia. We also did not include legendary figures such as King Arthur, Robin Hood, Rani Padmini, or Hua Mulan.
By covering the entire medieval world, this list will include figures that many people are not familiar with but are very important in particular nations or regions. Readers will also notice that military figures are not as prominent as people who focused on the arts and sciences – we think the latter have had a more enduring impact on the world.
Delve into the pivotal figures of the Middle Ages whose enduring legacies shaped the course of history. From visionary leaders and profound scholars to prolific writers and formidable warriors, these individuals left an indelible mark on medieval society.
Spanning from the sixth to the fifteenth centuries, this curated list highlights five influential figures from each century, offering a comprehensive view across the entire era. Explore our selection of fifty (actually fifty-two) key figures who defined the medieval world and continue to inspire generations today.
Sixth Century
Clovis I: Warrior King and Founder of Frankish Power (c.466-511)
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled in the fifth century, new powers emerged in Europe. One of the most significant figures of this era was Clovis I, a Frankish leader who first united his people and then conquered neighbouring regions. He created a state that spread over much of France, the Low Countries, and western Germany.
Clovis was not only the founder of the Merovingian Dynasty, which would rule for another 250 years, but he also converted (along with his people) to Roman Catholicism. This helped to establish that form of Christianity in Western Europe. As Katherine Scherman observed, Clovis was “a consummately successful king, the author of Frankish supremacy and a founder of modern France.”
Boethius: Philosopher and Consolation in a Time of Troubles (c. 477 – 524)
A Roman politician and official, Boethius made a name for himself as a writer. However, it would be his final work that made him famous. Unjustly imprisoned by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, Boethius wrote The Consolation of Philosophy while awaiting execution. This text on the philosophy of faith and reason became the most important philosophical work of the Middle Ages and continues to be widely read around the world.
Among his profound words are:
Balance out the good things and the bad that have happened in your life and you will have to acknowledge that you are still way ahead. You are unhappy because you have lost those things in which you took pleasure? But you can also take comfort in the likelihood that what is now making you miserable will also pass away.
Benedict of Nursia: The Father of Western Monasticism (480-548)
Benedict of Nursia is renowned as the founder of Western monasticism. His establishment of the Benedictine Order and formulation of the Benedictine Rule profoundly shaped medieval Christianity. Benedict initially pursued a solitary life of asceticism in Subiaco, where his disciplined yet practical approach attracted followers seeking spiritual guidance.
Central to Benedict’s influence was the Benedictine Rule, a blueprint for communal living and spiritual discipline within monastic communities. Emphasizing moderation, prayer, work, and obedience, the Rule promoted a balanced life of contemplation and labor. Benedictine monasteries, guided by this Rule, flourished across medieval Europe as centres of learning, agriculture, and faith, leaving an enduring mark on religious, cultural, and intellectual life.
Justinian I: Reuniting the Roman Empire and Championing Law (482-565)
The Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565, Justinian’s reign marked a revival of the Byzantine Empire. Militarily, Byzantine armies saw conquests in the Middle East, North Africa, and Italy, significantly expanding the empire. Just as importantly, his government undertook a major rewrite of Roman law codes, much of which has endured in the civil law of many countries today. Meanwhile, Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, with the impressive church of Hagia Sophia, became one of the most important cities of the medieval world.
Justinian’s rule had its supporters and detractors, including the contemporary writer Procopius, who presented two versions of the emperor. In one work, he praises Justinian for “taking over the State when it was harassed by disorder, has not only made it greater in extent, but also much more illustrious.” However, in another, he calls Justinian “deceitful, devious, false, hypocritical, two-faced, cruel, skilled in dissembling his thought, never moved to tears by either joy or pain, though he could summon them artfully at will when the occasion demanded, a liar always, not only offhand but in writing, and when he swore sacred oaths to his subjects in their very hearing.”
Khosrow I: Sassanid Emperor of Splendor (c.512 – 579)
Khosrow I, also known as Khosrow Anushiruwan or Khosrow the Just, ruled as the Sassanid Emperor from around 531 to 579. He is celebrated as one of ancient Persia’s most illustrious rulers, distinguished for his military achievements, administrative reforms, and cultural patronage.
During his reign, Khosrow I stabilized the Sassanid Empire by implementing significant administrative and military reforms. He successfully expanded Sassanid territories through strategic military campaigns, reaching into regions like Yemen and the Caucasus. His diplomatic skills were evident in the negotiation of the “Eternal Peace” with Emperor Justinian I in 532, which brought prolonged stability to the Eastern Roman-Persian frontier. Internally, Khosrow I fostered economic prosperity by overseeing infrastructure projects such as dams, bridges, and roads that facilitated trade and communication across the empire. Culturally, he promoted Persian literature and art, making his court a vibrant center of intellectual activity.
Khosrow I’s legacy as a just and capable ruler influenced subsequent Persian dynasties and left a lasting impact on the history of the ancient Near East, marking his reign as a pinnacle of Sassanid achievement and stability.
Seventh Century
Pope Gregory I: The Great – Reformer and Defender of the Faith (c.540 – 604)
Pope Gregory I, also known as Gregorius Anicius, ascended to the Papacy in 590 and left an indelible mark on the Church’s administration and mission. Renowned as one of only three popes to be titled ‘The Great,’ Gregory I undertook significant reforms that revitalized the Papacy’s administrative structure, ensuring its effectiveness and influence across Europe. His initiatives extended beyond organizational reforms; Gregory I emphasized missionary activities, dispatching missionaries to evangelize pagan peoples in Britain and elsewhere. He also reorganized the Church’s charitable efforts, aligning them more closely with its spiritual mission and ensuring they reached those most in need. Gregory I’s enduring influence in Papal history underscores his pivotal role in shaping the medieval Church and its outreach efforts.
Shōtoku Taishi: Prince and Reformer Who Shaped Japanese Culture (574-622)
Shōtoku Taishi, a pivotal figure in Japanese history, wielded significant influence despite never ascending to the imperial throne. Acting as the de facto ruler from 593 to 622, he laid the groundwork for a centralized government in Japan, marking a crucial shift towards greater political organization. Shōtoku’s reign was characterized by his embrace of Buddhism, which he introduced to Japan, fostering cultural and religious ties with China that would shape Japan’s future. His efforts not only strengthened governance but also paved the way for cultural exchange, earning him the moniker of the ‘Founder of Japan.’ Shōtoku Taishi’s legacy remains integral to Japan’s identity as the ‘Land of the Rising Sun,’ symbolizing its cultural and spiritual evolution during the medieval era.
Muhammad: Prophet of Islam and Founder of a World Religion (570-632)
Muhammad ibn Abdullah, born in Mecca around 570, is revered as the final prophet and messenger of God in Islam. His life and teachings shaped the foundation of one of the world’s major religions, Islam. Raised in Mecca’s diverse religious and cultural environment, Muhammad began receiving revelations from God through the angel Gabriel at the age of 40. These revelations, compiled into the Quran, emphasized monotheism, social justice, and moral conduct, challenging the prevailing polytheistic beliefs and social norms of pre-Islamic Arabia.
After the migration to Medina in 622 (known as the Hijra), Muhammad became a leader not only in spiritual matters but also in establishing a unified Islamic community. He navigated conflicts and negotiated treaties, demonstrating both his spiritual guidance and diplomatic skills. Muhammad’s teachings and the Quran formed the basis for Islamic governance and ethics, influencing legal systems and societal norms across diverse cultures.
Today, Muhammad is revered as an exemplary model of compassion, humility, and devotion in Islamic faith and culture, his life and teachings guiding millions of Muslims worldwide in their spiritual and moral lives.
Taizong: The Emperor Who Established the Tang Dynasty’s Golden Age (599-649)
Li Shimin, one of the co-founders of the Tang Dynasty in China, became emperor after his father’s death, ruling from 626 to 649. Taking on the name Taizong, he built an empire over much of East Asia, ushering in a golden age for Chinese history. Today, he remains an exemplar of a wise ruler and administrator. Reflecting on his reign, Taizong said:
I’ve learned the principles of good governance and put them into practice. Our country was going downhill, but it is now in good shape. Foreign barbarians used to invade China, but they are now our vassals. I’m very lucky, for I’ve done better than many rulers in history. I want to make sure that my rule has a good beginning and a good ending.
Ali: Fourth Caliph of Islam and Revered Figure (600-661)
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, the son-in-law and companion to Muhammad, was an important figure in Islam and the catalyst for a major rift in the Muslim community. After Muhammad’s death in 632, many believed Ali should succeed him, but he did not become Caliph until 656. His reign was marked by power struggles and civil war, ending with his assassination. The political disagreements over his claim to leadership eventually created the Sunni and Shia factions, the two largest branches of Islam.
Eighth Century
Wu Zetian: The Only Ruling Empress of China (624-705)
For about fifty years, Wu Zetian was the most important person in China, first as the empress consort, then as empress dowager to two of her sons, and finally becoming the only woman in Chinese history to officially rule as Empress from 690 to 705. Her rule was marked by both increasing prosperity within China and military victories abroad, but also by growing corruption and a brutal secret police regime.
In the words of historian Ann Paludan, “Wu Zetian was an extraordinary woman, attractive, exceptionally gifted, politically astute, and an excellent judge of men. With single-minded determination, she overcame the opposition of the Confucian establishment through her own efforts, unique among palace women by not using her own family.”
Bede: The Venerable Bede – Scholar and Chronicler of Anglo-Saxon England (672-735)
Often called The Venerable Bede, this monk lived in northern England and developed a reputation as one of the leading scholars of his time. He wrote dozens of works on a range of subjects, including theology, science, and music. His use of the Anno Domini system of dating the years would prove influential toward its being adopted throughout Europe and then the wider world. Bede’s most famous work is Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (An Ecclesiastical History of the English People), the most important source of English history in the early Middle Ages, and is widely studied and praised by modern historians.
Xuanzong: The Emperor Who Witnessed Tang Dynasty Glory and Turmoil (685-762)
Beginning his 44-year reign in 712, this emperor at first put an end to state corruption and brought in better administration. “He founded the Imperial Academy of Letters,” writes Ann Paludan, “and the atmosphere at court—an harmonious blend of Confucian rationalism, Daoist individualism and an openness to new ideas—attracted scholars, painters, poets, and musicians.” There was even a remarkable engineering feat—in 724 the Pu Jin Bridge was built to cross the Yellow River.
However, Xuanzong’s reign would be viewed as the beginning of the decline of the Tang Dynasty, first with the defeat at the Battle of Talas, and then the An Lushan Rebellion, which lasted from 755 to 763. Xuanzong would retire as emperor in 756.
Li Bai (701-762) and Du Fu (712-770): Titans of Tang Dynasty Poetry
The Tang Dynasty is often considered one of the high points in Chinese civilization, with the country flourishing economically and culturally. It is not surprising that several of the most important people on this list came from this period, including Li Bai and Du Fu.
About a thousand poems Li Bai wrote have survived to the present day, such as “Quiet Night Thoughts”:
Before my bed there’s a pool of light
I wonder if it’s frost on the ground
Looking up, I find the moon bright
Then bowing my head, I drown in homesickness.
With Du Fu, nearly 1500 of his poems still exist. He was deeply affected by the An Lushan Rebellion, even being taken prisoner at one point, and his writings reflected this, including “Facing Snow”:
After the battle, many new ghosts cry,
The solitary old man worries and grieves.
Ragged clouds are low amid the dusk,
Snow dances quickly in the whirling wind.
The ladle’s cast aside, the cup not green,
The stove still looks as if a fiery red.
To many places, communications are broken,
I sit, but cannot read my books for grief.
The reason we place these two men together is because of the deep friendship they shared with each other, first meeting in the year 744. They would write to each other for the rest of their lives, including poems such as this “joke” by Li Bai:
I ran into Du Fu by a Rice Grain Mountain,
In a bamboo hat with the sun at high noon.
Hasn’t he got awfully thin since our parting?
It must be the struggle of writing his poems.
Al-Mansur: Founder of Baghdad and Builder of the Abbasid Caliphate (c.714-775)
Al-Mansur, born Abu Ja’far Abdallah ibn Muhammad, is renowned as the co-founder of the Abbasid Dynasty and the mastermind behind the establishment of Baghdad. His rise to power began with his pivotal role in overthrowing the Umayyad Caliphate, marking a significant shift in Islamic governance. Upon the death of his brother Saffah in 754, al-Mansur ascended to become the second Abbasid caliph, consolidating and solidifying the dynasty’s authority across the Islamic world. His strategic vision and leadership were instrumental in shaping the Abbasid Caliphate into a formidable political and cultural force during the medieval period.
Ninth Century
Harun al-Rashid: The Caliph of “One Thousand and One Nights” Fame (786-809)
If the first few Abbasid caliphs established this dynasty, it was Harun al-Rashid who made it famous. Reigning from 786 to 809, this caliph had mixed results militarily but has been credited with making Baghdad a center of culture and learning. Harun was a major figure in the establishment of Bayt al-Ḥikmah (House of Wisdom) as a library and educational center that attracted leading scholars. Furthermore, he promoted much music and poetry and developed a reputation that would even lead to him becoming a key character in the One Thousand and One Nights.
Harun al-Rashid also made diplomatic alliances with the Tang Dynasty in China and the Carolingians in Western Europe. As one chronicler concluded, “so great were the splendor and riches of his reign, such was its prosperity, that this period has been called “the Honeymoon.”
Charlemagne: Forger of a European Empire (742-814)
After becoming King of the Franks, Charles would spend the next 46 years building a state that stretched across much of western and central Europe. His power would rise until he would be crowned Holy Roman Emperor in the year 800.
The Carolingian Empire founded by Charlemagne would dominate Europe for most of the ninth century, and the institutions they created or revived would endure for centuries afterward. Moreover, this era would see a ‘Renaissance’ in learning and culture, as Charlemagne’s court would become a home for scholars and artists.
Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, is remembered as one of the most important people in European history, even being called the “Father of Europe”. Historian Janet L. Nelson describes him as “a man who was by any standards extraordinary: a many-sided character whose sixty-five years of life and doings were driven by unremitting physical energy and intellectual curiosity.”
Kūkai: Bringer of Esoteric Buddhism to Japan (774-835)
Kūkai, known as ‘The Grand Master,’ played a pivotal role in the spread and development of Buddhism in Japan during the medieval period. Born in 774, he embarked on a transformative journey to China in 804 to deepen his understanding of Buddhism. Upon his return to Japan in 806, Kūkai founded the Shingon school of Buddhism, which emphasized esoteric teachings and rituals. This school quickly gained prominence among Japan’s elite, influencing religious practices and cultural development.
Kūkai’s contributions extended beyond doctrine. He initiated the construction of significant temples, most notably the complex at Mount Kōya, which remains a UNESCO World Heritage Site today. These temples became centers of learning and spiritual practice, fostering the growth of Buddhism and its integration into Japanese society. Kūkai’s enduring legacy lies in his scholarly pursuits, religious reforms, and the establishment of institutions that shaped the religious landscape of medieval Japan.
Al-Jahiz: The Polymath: Thinker, Writer, and Zoologist of the Abbasid Golden Age (776-869)
Al-Jahiz, famously known as ‘The Bug-Eyed’, was a prolific Arabic writer and scholar whose intellectual pursuits spanned a wide array of subjects. Born in 776, he dedicated over fifty years of his life in Baghdad to writing and scholarship, leaving behind a remarkable legacy of at least 140 works. Al-Jahiz’s diverse interests encompassed fields as varied as natural history, linguistics, sociology, and even humour.
His writings covered an impressive range of topics, from detailed observations on animals and their behaviors to discussions on eloquence and the complexities of racial identity. Al-Jahiz also delved into philosophical inquiries, pondering questions such as the advantages of being left-handed versus right-handed. His keen observations and thoughtful analyses earned him recognition not only as a prolific writer but also as a profound thinker whose insights continue to resonate in Arabic literature and intellectual discourse.
ʿArīb al-Ma’mūnīya: The Superstar: Celebrated Singer and Poet (797-890)
This is the person who would be the least known to the modern world, yet was probably the most famous person in the world when she lived. You could call ʿArīb the diva of the Middle Ages, as she was a singer, poet, composer, calligrapher, chess player, and socialite. Sold into slavery at the age of 10, music would be the career that would bring her to the courts of the Abbasid elite. Anecdotes of her life and many relationships—eight rulers were among her lovers—reveal a woman with sharp wit and keen intelligence.
To you treachery is a virtue you have many faces and ten tongues.
I’m surprised my heart still clings to you in spite of what you put me through.
ʿArīb would not only survive the fractious conflicts within the Abbasid court but became fabulously wealthy and long-lived. In the words of one admirer:
She is the sun and the other women are stars
If she appears, they set and become invisible.
Tenth Century
Abu Bakr al-Razi: The Rational Physician: A Pioneer of Medicine in the Islamic World (c.865-c.925)
Known in the Western world as Rhazes, he is considered a hugely important figure in the history of medicine. Serving as the head of hospitals in Baghdad and Rey, al-Razi would write over two hundred works related to the field, and was known for his work in experimental medicine, the use of pharmacies, pediatrics, obstetrics, and ophthalmology. He was also an important writer on medical ethics and is known for this statement:
The doctor’s aim is to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies.
Al-Razi is also known for works in alchemy, metaphysics, and philosophy.
Rollo: From Raider to Founder of Normandy (died between 928-933)
Rollo, a prominent Norse warrior and leader, cemented his place in history through a pivotal agreement in 911 with the King of the West Franks. This agreement granted Rollo and his followers lands along the northern coast of present-day France, marking the beginning of Norman rule in the region. As the first ruler of Normandy, Rollo oversaw the transformation of this territory from a domain of seafaring raiders into a significant political entity in medieval Europe.
Under Rollo’s leadership and that of his descendants, Normandy flourished and evolved into a powerful player in both French and English politics within a few generations. The Normans not only consolidated their control over the region but also extended their influence across neighboring territories, leaving a lasting impact on the political landscape of medieval Europe. Rollo’s legacy as the founder of Normandy continues to be remembered for shaping the course of history in the region and beyond.
Abd al-Rahman III: Caliph of Córdoba: Unifying Iberia and Fostering a Cultural Golden Age (890-961)
Halfway through his nearly five-decade reign, Abd al-Rahman III established the Caliphate of Córdoba. This caliphate ruled over a vast territory, encompassing much of Iberia and parts of North Africa. Under his leadership, the city of Córdoba flourished. Its population soared to an estimated 400,000, making it one of the largest cities in the world. This prosperity fueled Córdoba’s rise as a major center of learning and culture.
Despite his achievements, Abd al-Rahman III held a surprisingly introspective view of his life and reign. He wrote:
I have now reigned for over fifty years in victory or peace. Beloved by my subjects, dreaded by my enemies, and respected by my allies. Riches and honors, power and pleasure, have awaited my call. No earthly blessing seems to have been absent from my happiness. Yet, in diligently counting the days of pure and genuine happiness that have fallen to my lot, they amount to only fourteen. Oh, man! Place not your confidence in this present world!
This passage reveals a thoughtful leader who, despite his outward success, recognized the limitations of worldly pursuits.
Otto I: Holy Roman Emperor and Defender of Christendom (912-973
Otto I, also known as Otto the Great, earned his moniker through a combination of impressive military victories and his political prowess in uniting the fractured German states into a cohesive kingdom. His reign witnessed a pivotal moment in European history with his decisive victory at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. This battle effectively halted the Magyars’ westward expansion and secured his reputation as a defender of Christendom. Otto’s ambitions extended beyond German borders, and he also led successful campaigns into parts of Italy, further solidifying his power. The dynasty he established, the Ottonian dynasty, would endure for nearly a century after his death. Significantly, the Ottonians actively fostered artistic and scholarly pursuits, laying the groundwork for what would later be considered a ‘renaissance’ within the Holy Roman Empire.
Taizu – Reuniting China and Laying a Strong Foundation (937-76)
Zhao Kuangyin, who later took the regnal name Taizu, emerged as a powerful military leader during a tumultuous period in Chinese history. China had been fractured into a collection of competing dynasties and kingdoms for decades. Through a strategic coup d’état, Zhao Kuangyin seized control in 960 and ascended the throne as the first emperor of the Song Dynasty.
Taizu’s reign (960-976) was marked by significant achievements. He successfully reunified much of China, bringing a period of stability and prosperity to the war-torn nation. His leadership extended beyond military conquest. Taizu enacted significant reforms to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the government. He also championed advancements in academic pursuits, fostering a flourishing intellectual environment. The Song Dynasty, established by Taizu, would endure for over three centuries, leaving a lasting legacy on Chinese history.
Eleventh century
Ferdowsi Tusi: The Immortal Voice of Iranian Epic (940-1019/1025)
Abul-Qâsem Ferdowsi Tusi, or simply Ferdowsi, was a towering figure in Persian literature. His magnum opus, the Shahnameh (Book of Kings), stands as a cornerstone of Iranian cultural identity. This epic poem, consisting of roughly 50,000 verses, weaves together myths, legends, and historical accounts to chronicle the Iranian world from its creation to the Islamic conquest. Over three decades, Ferdowsi poured his heart and soul into this monumental work, solidifying his place as the preeminent voice of Iranian epic tradition. The Shahnameh’s influence extends far beyond Iran, resonating throughout Central Asia and inspiring countless artists and writers across the centuries.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna): The Philosopher-Physician of the Islamic Golden Age (980-1037)
Ibn Sina, also known by the Latinized name Avicenna, was a polymath who flourished during the Islamic Golden Age. Born in Central Asia (present-day Uzbekistan) around 980, he excelled in various fields throughout his life. Ibn Sina’s brilliance was evident early on, and he mastered subjects like medicine by his teenage years. His vast knowledge and medical expertise led him to become a court physician for the Buyid Dynasty, a powerful dynasty ruling parts of Iran and surrounding regions.
Ibn Sina’s scholarly pursuits were prolific. He authored over 450 works in his lifetime, encompassing a remarkable range of subjects including philosophy, physics, and psychology. Many of these works, though only around 240 have survived, left an enduring impact on Islamic intellectual discourse. However, Ibn Sina’s most famous contribution is undoubtedly The Canon of Medicine. Completed in 1025, this medical encyclopedia remained the preeminent source of medical knowledge for centuries to come, influencing medical practices well into the 16th and 17th centuries in both the Islamic world and Europe.
Rajendra Chola I: A Maritime Emperor Who Forged a Chola Empire (c.971-1044)
Rajendra Chola I wasn’t just a successor; he was a force to be reckoned with even before ascending the Chola throne in 1014. His impressive military career played a key role in expanding the empire’s influence across South India. Upon becoming emperor, Rajendra’s reign ushered in a new era of Chola power. He led groundbreaking naval campaigns, venturing across the Bay of Bengal to conquer territories in present-day Malaysia and Indonesia.
The reigns of Rajendra Chola I and his father, Rajaraja Chola I, are considered the golden age of the Chola Dynasty (c. 848 – 1279). During this period, Chola merchants dominated trade across the Indian Ocean, establishing a vast maritime network. Rajendra further cemented his legacy by establishing a new capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, solidifying the Chola Empire’s position as a dominant power in the region.
Gregory VII: The Reformer Pope Who Clashed with Emperors (1073-1085)
Born Hildebrand of Sovana, the son of a humble blacksmith, Gregory VII’s path to the papacy was remarkable. By the late 1040s, he had risen through the ranks of the Church hierarchy, becoming a trusted advisor within the Papacy. In 1073, he ascended to the highest office, taking the name Gregory VII.
Pope Gregory VII is a pivotal figure in Church history. He championed a series of reforms aimed at strengthening the Papacy and combating corruption within the Church. A central tenet of his reforms was the concept of papal supremacy, asserting the authority of the Pope over secular rulers. This directly challenged the power of the Holy Roman Emperor, sparking the Investiture Controversy, a decades-long struggle over who would appoint bishops – the Pope or the Emperor. The most dramatic episode of this conflict was the Walk to Canossa in 1077, where a humbled Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV, waited for days outside the gates of a castle to seek forgiveness from the Pope.
Gregory VII’s unwavering commitment to reform, despite the fierce opposition he faced, laid the groundwork for a strengthened papacy. His legacy extended far beyond his reign, ushering in an era where popes wielded significant political influence throughout the Middle Ages.
William I: From Duke of Normandy to King of England (c. 1027 – 1087)
Born William the Bastard due to his illegitimate birth around 1027, William’s early life was far from promising. He ascended the Dukedom of Normandy as a mere child in 1035, facing rebellions and challenges to his authority. Yet, William proved to be a resourceful and tenacious leader. He overcame these obstacles, consolidating his power and forging a strong Normandy.
William’s greatest achievement, however, came in 1066. Following the death of the English king, Edward the Confessor, William contested the throne with a rival claimant, Harold Godwinson. Decisively defeating Harold’s forces at the Battle of Hastings, William secured the English crown and earned the moniker “William the Conqueror.”
William’s coronation marked a turning point in English history. He established a powerful Norman state that encompassed both England and Normandy, forever altering the political landscape of Britain. His reign ushered in a period of profound change, characterized by the introduction of a new feudal system and a Norman aristocracy. Despite facing rebellions, William successfully consolidated his control over England, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to shape the nation today.
Twelfth Century
Abelard & Héloïse: A Love Story of Passion, Intellect, and Tragedy in Medieval France (1079-1142 & c.1100-1163)
Peter Abelard was a well-known scholar in France when he became the tutor to Héloïse in 1116. As her tutor, Abelard’s admiration for Héloïse’s intellect quickly turned into love. Their passionate romance, which included a secret marriage and the birth of a child, ended in tragedy when Abelard was castrated by Héloïse’s enraged uncle. Separated, Abelard and Héloïse spent the rest of their lives in monasteries, but their love persisted through letters.
These letters are now seen as a profound documentation of their relationship, showcasing their deep intellectual and emotional bond. Abelard continued his scholarly pursuits, writing philosophical and theological works that influenced medieval thought. Héloïse, on the other hand, became an abbess and was known for her intelligence and leadership. Their story remains one of the most enduring and tragic love stories from the Middle Ages, capturing the complexities of passion, intellect, and faith.
Li Qingzhao: Master of Song Dynasty Poetry and Champion of Artistic Legacy (1084-1156)
Although only about a hundred of her poems have survived, Li Qingzhao is considered one of the greatest poets in Chinese history. Her poetry reflects the range of human emotions and experiences, from the joys of life to the sorrows of exile. Her early works often celebrated the pleasures of wine and the beauty of nature. However, her later works took on a more somber tone after she was forced to flee her home due to war, and after the death of her beloved husband.
Li’s writing is noted for its vivid imagery and emotional depth, capturing moments of personal and historical significance. Her influence on Chinese literature is profound, as she set a standard for lyrical poetry that emphasized personal expression and introspection. Despite the limited number of her surviving works, her legacy endures, and she is celebrated as a pioneer of female literary expression in a male-dominated cultural landscape.
Here is her poem, ‘Joy of Wine’:
I remember in Hsi T’ing
All the many times
We got lost in the sunset,
Happy with wine,
And could not find our way back.
When the evening came,
Exhausted with pleasure,
We turned our boat.
By mistake we found ourselves even deeper
In the clusters of lotus blossoms,
And startled the gulls and egrets
From the sand bars.
They crowded into the air
And hastily flapped away
To the opposite shore.
Hildegard of Bingen: Mystic, Visionary, and Polymath of the Middle Ages (c.1098-1179)
A mystic, writer, and abbess, Hildegard of Bingen was a powerful personality within the Catholic Church during the twelfth century. She claimed to have visions from a young age, which she later documented in her writings. These visions, along with her theological insights, established her as a respected spiritual authority. Through her extensive correspondence with many church and political figures, Hildegard’s influence spread across Europe, and she became a significant figure in religious and intellectual circles.
Hildegard’s contributions were not limited to theology; she wrote prolifically on medicine, philosophy, music, and even plays. Her works on natural history and medicinal practices were particularly ahead of their time, blending scientific observation with spiritual insight. Today, Hildegard remains a widely-read spiritual figure, and her music, writings, and holistic approach to health continue to inspire contemporary audiences.
Minamoto no Yoshitsune: Legendary Warrior and Symbol of Samurai Spirit (c.1159-1189)
One of the most famous samurai warriors in Japanese history, Minamoto no Yoshitsune was a successful military commander in the 1180s. He played a crucial role in the Genpei War, helping to secure the Minamoto clan’s victory over the Taira clan, which led to the establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate. Yoshitsune’s military prowess and strategic genius became legendary, and his life story has been romanticized in numerous literary and artistic works.
Despite his military success, Yoshitsune’s life was marked by tragedy and betrayal. His older half-brother, Minamoto no Yoritomo, who became the first shogun, saw Yoshitsune as a threat and eventually turned against him. Forced to flee, Yoshitsune’s story ended in his tragic death, but his legacy lived on. His legend grew through works like The Tale of the Heike, making him a leading example of Japanese martial culture and an enduring symbol of loyalty and heroism.
Saladin – Warrior Against the Crusades (c.1137-1193)
Yusuf ibn Ayyub ibn Shadi, better known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Syria. Born in Tikrit, Iraq, Saladin rose to prominence through his military campaigns and statesmanship. He is best known for his role in the Crusades, particularly for recapturing Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187. His victory at the Battle of Hattin is considered a turning point in the Crusades, showcasing his strategic acumen and leadership.
Saladin’s reputation extends beyond his military achievements. He is remembered for his chivalry, generosity, and fairness, even by his adversaries. His treatment of defeated Crusaders was marked by clemency and respect, earning him admiration in both Western and Middle Eastern history. Saladin’s legacy as a unifier and a just ruler endures, making him one of the most respected figures of the medieval Islamic world.
Thirteenth Century
Maimonides: Rabbi, Physician, Philosopher (1138-1204)
Moses ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides, is the leading Jewish figure of the Middle Ages. Born in Córdoba, Spain, he spent much of his life in Morocco and Egypt. As a polymath, Maimonides wrote extensively on a wide range of topics, including Jewish law, philosophy, medicine, and science. His most famous work, The Guide for the Perplexed, addresses the conflicts between religious faith and rational thought, offering insights that continue to be relevant today.
In addition to his scholarly contributions, Maimonides served as the personal physician to Saladin, reflecting his prominence in both the Jewish and Islamic worlds. His works have had a lasting impact on Jewish thought, particularly his codification of Jewish law in Mishneh Torah. Maimonides’ integration of Aristotelian philosophy with Jewish theology set a foundation for future philosophical inquiry and established him as a central figure in medieval intellectual history.
Jayavarman VII: The Great King of Angkor (c.1122-1218)
The most powerful king of the Khmer Empire, Jayavarman VII, reigned during the empire’s zenith. Known for his extensive building projects, he constructed numerous temples, roads, hospitals, and a new capital city, Angkor Thom. These projects were not only architectural marvels but also served to consolidate his rule and enhance the welfare of his people. Under his reign, the city of Angkor became a bustling metropolis with as many as a million inhabitants.
Jayavarman VII’s reign is also noted for his devout Buddhism, which influenced his policies and the art and culture of the Khmer Empire. He promoted Mahayana Buddhism, and his reign saw the construction of the Bayon temple, famous for its smiling faces and intricate carvings. The legacy of Jayavarman VII’s rule is evident in the enduring cultural and architectural heritage of Cambodia, making him one of the most significant figures in Southeast Asian history.
Chinggis Khan: Founder of the Mongol Empire (1162-1227)
Temüjin, who would become known as Chinggis Khan, was a Mongol warrior who united the fragmented Mongol tribes and established a powerful empire that spanned much of Asia. Under his leadership, the Mongols conquered vast territories, including parts of China, Central Asia, and even Eastern Europe. Chinggis Khan’s military strategies, adaptability, and ruthless efficiency were key to his success, transforming the Mongols into a formidable force.
Chinggis Khan’s impact extended beyond his conquests. He implemented innovative governance structures, promoted trade and communication across the Silk Road, and fostered cultural exchange between East and West. His legacy is complex, as he is remembered both for the destruction his conquests wrought and for the unification and modernization he brought to the vast regions under Mongol control. His successors expanded the Mongol Empire to its greatest extent, making it the largest contiguous land empire in history.
Rumi: Sufi Mystic Poet (1207-1273)
Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī, born in present-day Afghanistan, eventually settled in the Seljuk Sultanate of Anatolia. As a Sufi mystic and teacher, Rumi gained many followers through his teachings and poetry. His works, deeply rooted in themes of love, spirituality, and human connection, have transcended cultural and religious boundaries, resonating with audiences worldwide. One of his well-known poems, translated by @sharghzadeh, reads:
Today we’re broken, broken, like every other day,
Open not the door of worry, grab the lute and play!
There are one hundred kinds of prayers and prostrations
When one faces their beloved’s beauty as they pray.
Rumi’s influence extends far beyond his lifetime. His poetry, which includes the Masnavi and the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi, remains widely read and admired for its profound insights into the human condition. His ideas about love and the divine continue to inspire people of various faiths and backgrounds. As Shahram Shiva notes, “Rumi is able to verbalize the highly personal and often confusing world of personal growth and development in a very clear and direct fashion.” Today, his poems are heard in various cultural and religious settings, illustrating his enduring appeal.
Thomas Aquinas: Influential Medieval Theologian (c.1225-1274)
by Carlo Crivelli
Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican friar and scholar, worked as a theologian and philosopher in both Italy and France. His efforts were primarily focused on integrating Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, culminating in his magnum opus, Summa Theologiae. This work, an extensive compilation of theological and philosophical knowledge, is considered one of the most significant writings in the history of the Catholic Church.
Aquinas’ influence extends beyond religious thought; his ethical writings have also had a profound impact on Western philosophy. He developed the concept of natural law, which posits that moral principles are derived from human nature and reason. His ideas laid the groundwork for later developments in moral and political philosophy. Recognized as a Doctor of the Church, Aquinas remains a central figure in theological and philosophical education, with his works continuing to be studied and revered by scholars and believers alike.
Fourteenth Century
Dante Alighieri: The Father of the Italian Language and Author of the Divine Comedy (c.1265-1321)
Dante Alighieri, a Florentine writer and poet, is best known for his epic work The Divine Comedy, which is considered one of the most important pieces of Italian literature. Written in the early 14th century, this poem narrates Dante’s journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven, reflecting his views on religion, philosophy, and politics. The Divine Comedy has had a profound influence on the literary world, shaping the Italian language and literature.
Dante’s work extends beyond his famous epic. He was also a significant political figure, involved in the complex politics of Florence. His political views led to his exile, during which he wrote much of The Divine Comedy. Through his writings, Dante provided a detailed commentary on the moral and social issues of his time. His ability to blend personal experience with universal themes has made his work timeless, earning him the title of “the supreme poet” in Italy.
Marco Polo: The Venetian Explorer Who Opened the East to Europe (1254-1324)
A Venetian merchant, Marco Polo spent over 20 years traveling through Asia, reaching the court of Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler of China. His extensive travels, which took him through various parts of Asia, were documented in Book of the Marvels of the World. This book, also known as The Travels of Marco Polo, provided Europeans with one of the first detailed accounts of the vast and diverse cultures of Asia, sparking European interest in the wider world.
Marco Polo’s writings significantly influenced the age of exploration. His detailed descriptions of the wealth and splendour of the East inspired many explorers, including Christopher Columbus, to seek new trade routes and opportunities. Polo’s accounts also provided valuable insights into the geography, politics, and economics of the regions he visited, contributing to the broader understanding of the world during the Middle Ages.
Ibn Taymiyya: The Influential Islamic Scholar Who Challenged Religious Authority (1263-1328)
A controversial Islamic scholar based in Damascus, Ibn Taymiyya often criticized the political and religious elite of the Mamluk Empire. He was a prolific writer, producing works on theology, jurisprudence, and philosophy that challenged the established norms of his time. His ideas often put him at odds with the authorities, leading to multiple imprisonments. Despite this, his writings continued to gain followers and have found new audiences since the nineteenth century.
Ibn Taymiyya’s influence extends into contemporary times, particularly among conservative Muslim groups. His emphasis on returning to the fundamentals of Islam and rejecting innovations (bid’ah) has resonated with those advocating for a more orthodox approach to the faith. His works have been extensively studied and debated, making him an influential thinker for conservative Muslim beliefs and shaping modern Islamic thought.
Mansa Musa: The Wealthy King Who Expanded the Mali Empire (reigned c.1312-1337)
Mansa Musa, the ruler of the Mali Empire, is often remembered as one of the wealthiest individuals in history. His reign marked a period of prosperity and cultural development in West Africa. Mansa Musa expanded the empire, making it a center of trade, wealth, and learning. His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325-26 is particularly famous; his extravagant spending and generosity during the journey left a lasting impression on the regions he passed through, notably affecting the economy of Egypt for over a decade.
Mansa Musa’s contributions to the Mali Empire extended beyond wealth. He established Timbuktu as a major centre of Islamic learning and culture, building mosques, universities, and libraries. His support for education and the arts helped to cultivate a rich cultural heritage that lasted long after his reign. Mansa Musa’s legacy as a powerful and benevolent ruler continues to be celebrated, symbolizing the wealth and sophistication of medieval Africa.
Geoffrey Chaucer: The Father of English Literature and Author of The Canterbury Tales (c.1340-1400)
Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, is often regarded as the father of English literature. His work, written in Middle English, includes a collection of stories told by pilgrims traveling to Canterbury, showcasing a wide range of characters and social classes. The Canterbury Tales is celebrated for its rich language, vivid descriptions, and keen observations of human nature, reflecting Chaucer’s deep understanding of society.
Chaucer’s influence on the English language is profound. He is credited with introducing new vocabulary and phrases, enriching the language and making it more expressive. His works provided a foundation for future English literature, and his innovative use of the vernacular helped establish English as a legitimate literary language. Chaucer’s legacy endures through his contributions to literature and his impact on the development of the English language.
Fifteenth Century
Christine de Pizan: Championing Women’s Rights Through Literature (1364-c.1430)
Christine de Pizan, born in Venice and later residing in France, is recognized as the first professional female writer of the Middle Ages. Following the death of her husband in 1389, she turned to writing to support her family, producing works that ranged from poetry to political treatises. Christine’s most notable work, The Book of the City of Ladies, is a pioneering feminist text that defends and celebrates the contributions of women to society.
Christine‘s writing was deeply influenced by her connections to the French royal court, where she found patrons who supported her work. She used her platform to address issues of gender inequality and to advocate for the education and empowerment of women. Her thoughtful and eloquent arguments have earned her a place as an important feminist thinker, whose ideas continue to resonate in discussions about gender and society.
Joan of Arc: The Maid of Orléans Who Led France in War (1412-1431)
Joan of Arc, a national hero in France, led French armies against the English in the Hundred Years’ War as a teenager. Born to a peasant family, Joan claimed to have received visions from saints instructing her to support Charles VII and help drive the English out of France. Her military leadership and inspiring presence led to several crucial victories, including the lifting of the Siege of Orléans, which bolstered French morale and turned the tide of the war.
Captured by the Burgundians and handed over to the English, Joan was put on trial for charges including heresy and cross-dressing. Despite her eloquent defence, she was convicted and burned at the stake in 1431. Joan’s martyrdom only enhanced her legend, and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. Her life and legacy have made her a symbol of courage, faith, and patriotism, and she remains an enduring icon in French history and beyond.
Zheng He: The “Ming Dynasty Explorer” Who Sailed the Seas (1371-1433/5)
A court official in the Ming government, Zheng He commanded seven maritime expeditions from 1405 to 1433, involving massive fleets that sailed into the South China Sea, Indian Ocean, and as far as the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa. These voyages demonstrated Chinese naval power and facilitated trade and diplomatic relations with numerous countries. Zheng He’s expeditions brought back valuable goods, exotic animals, and tributes, enhancing the prestige of the Ming Dynasty.
Zheng He’s legacy extends beyond his role as an explorer. His voyages symbolized China’s outreach and influence during the early 15th century, showcasing its technological and navigational advancements. Despite the eventual cessation of these expeditions, Zheng He’s achievements remain a source of pride in Chinese history, reflecting the country’s historical contributions to global exploration and cultural exchange.
Filippo Brunelleschi: The Architect Who Built the Dome of Florence Cathedral (1377-1446)
Filippo Brunelleschi, with his innovative design and construction of the dome at Florence’s Cathedral, became a leading architect and engineer of the Renaissance. The dome, a feat of engineering and artistic genius, remains a landmark of Florence and a testament to Brunelleschi’s ingenuity. His work on the dome not only solved a significant architectural challenge but also set new standards for construction techniques and aesthetic design.
Brunelleschi’s contributions to art and architecture extend beyond the dome. He is credited with the development of linear perspective, which revolutionized the way space and depth were represented in visual art. This breakthrough had a profound impact on Renaissance art, influencing countless artists and shaping the course of Western art history. Brunelleschi’s blend of artistry, mathematics, and engineering established him as a pivotal figure in the transition from medieval to modern architectural practices.
Johannes Gutenberg: The Inventor Who Changed the World with the Printing Press (1398-1468)
In the 1440s, Johannes Gutenberg invented and developed the movable-type printing press, transforming the production of books and the dissemination of knowledge. His invention made it possible to produce books more quickly and affordably than ever before, democratizing access to information and ideas. The Gutenberg Bible, printed in the 1450s, is one of the earliest major books produced using movable type, showcasing the potential of his revolutionary technology.
Gutenberg’s printing press had a profound impact on the spread of knowledge and the course of history. It facilitated the spread of the Renaissance, Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution by making books and pamphlets more accessible to a wider audience. The ability to mass-produce written works transformed education, religion, science, and politics, laying the foundation for the modern knowledge-based society. Gutenberg’s invention is now considered one of the most significant technological advancements in history.
Further Thoughts
There were many people that could have made this list, including Eleanor of Aquitaine, Saint Francis of Assisi, and Emperor Lalibela of Ethiopia. We also did not include legendary figures such as King Arthur, Robin Hood, Rani Padmini, or Hua Mulan.
By covering the entire medieval world, this list will include figures that many people are not familiar with but are very important in particular nations or regions. Readers will also notice that military figures are not as prominent as people who focused on the arts and sciences – we think the latter have had a more enduring impact on the world.
See also: The 50 Most Significant Events of the Middle Ages
Further Reading:
Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors: The Reign-by-reign Record Of The Rulers Of Imperial China, by Ann Paludan (Penguin, 2009)
Islamic Civilization in Thirty Lives: The First 1,000 Years, by Chase F. Robinson (Univerisity of California Press, 2016)
Top Image: Amiens, Bibliothèque municipale, ms. 108, fol. 254r
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