The Middle Ages were a time of intense political intrigue, ruthless power struggles, and dramatic betrayals. Among the most shocking events of this era were the assassinations that changed the course of history. From kings and dukes to influential clergy, no one was safe from the deadly schemes of their enemies. In this article, we delve into the top 10 most notorious medieval assassinations, uncovering the stories behind these historic murders that shaped the course of the Middle Ages.
1. The Murder of Thomas Becket
With the famous line, “Who will rid me of this troublesome priest?”, King Henry II unintentionally set into motion the most famous assassination in English history. By 1170, the King had been in a bitter conflict with his former friend and now Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket. Near the end of the year, the King was so displeased with Becket’s actions that he muttered these words (or something similar), and four knights—Reginald fitzUrse, Hugh de Morville, William de Tracy, and Richard le Breton—interpreted it as a royal command and set out to confront the Archbishop.
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Becket kneels at the altar as he is murdered by the knights led by Reginald Fitzurse. – British Librar MS Kings 9, f.38v
On December 29, 1170, they entered the cathedral and, in the words of an eyewitness:
The wicked knight leapt suddenly upon him, cutting off the top of the crown which the unction of sacred chrism had dedicated to God. Next, he received a second blow on the head, but still he stood firm and immovable. At the third blow, he fell on his knees and elbows, offering himself a living sacrifice, and saying in a low voice, ‘For the name of Jesus and the protection of the Church, I am ready to embrace death.’ But the third knight inflicted a terrible wound as he lay prostrate. By this stroke, the crown of his head was separated from the head in such a way that the blood white with the brain, and the brain no less red from the blood, dyed the floor of the cathedral. The same clerk who had entered with the knights placed his foot on the neck of the holy priest and precious martyr, and, horrible to relate, scattered the brains and blood about the pavements, crying to the others, ‘Let us away, knights; this fellow will arise no more.’
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2. Giuliano de’ Medici and the Pazzi Conspiracy
The Pazzi conspiracy was a bold and treacherous attempt to overthrow the powerful Medici family and seize control of Florence. Orchestrated by the Pazzi, another influential Florentine family, the plot included high-profile co-conspirators, such as Pope Sixtus IV. Their objective was to eliminate Lorenzo de’ Medici and his brother Giuliano de’ Medici, thereby crippling the Medici hold on the city.
On Sunday, April 26, 1478, the conspirators made their move during High Mass at the Duomo, in front of a congregation of 10,000. The assassination attempt was brutal and swift: Giuliano was stabbed 19 times and bled to death on the cathedral floor. Lorenzo, however, managed to escape with injuries.
The aftermath of the failed assassination was chaotic and violent. The citizens of Florence, loyal to the Medici, rose up in anger. The assassins were swiftly apprehended and killed by furious mobs. The Pazzi family and their supporters faced merciless retribution, being hunted down and destroyed. In the wake of the conspiracy, Lorenzo de’ Medici emerged stronger and more influential than ever, solidifying his family’s dominance over Florence.
1479 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci of hanged Pazzi conspirator Bernardo Bandini dei Baroncelli – Wikimedia Commons
3. The Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat
The Nizari Ismailis, a Shia sect based in Syria and Persia, had a formidable reputation as the best assassins in the Middle Ages. Known as the Hashishin, their name gradually evolved into the modern word “assassin.” Numerous killings across the Middle East were attributed to this group, including the murder of Conrad of Montferrat on April 28, 1192.
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Conrad had just been elected as the next King of Jerusalem when he was assassinated. The chronicler Ambroise recounts the scene vividly: Conrad, in good spirits after dining with the Bishop of Beauvais, was walking when:
as he went on his way, happy, two young men, without cloaks, carrying two knives, came running up to him, striking him in his body as they ran up, so that he fell … Of those who had betrayed him, one was killed straight away, the other took refuge in a church, but this was no use to him, for he was seized and dragged until he was dead.
The Ismailis were blamed for Conrad’s assassination, but this wasn’t the only instance where they were accused without concrete evidence. It is possible they were used as scapegoats for other perpetrators. Rumors even suggested that Richard I, King of England, was involved in the plot, as he opposed Conrad’s ascension to power in the crusader state.
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4. The Slaying of Louis I, Duke of Orléans
Louis I, Duke of Orléans, was the younger brother of French King Charles VI, who suffered from a severe mental illness. In a power struggle for control of the kingdom, Louis clashed with John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. Despite a peace agreement reached between the two rivals on November 20, 1407, the truce was short-lived. Just three days later, on November 23, John orchestrated a brutal assassination of Louis in the streets of Paris.
Louis’s assassination on the rue Vieille du Temple – Wikimedia Commons
On that fateful day, 15 masked men ambushed Louis in a public square, where they attacked him with ruthless violence. The assassination was both a political maneuver and a personal vendetta, dramatically shifting the balance of power in France. Louis was killed in broad daylight, an act that ignited further conflict between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs.
5. The Death of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy
The power struggles of medieval France were far from over with the death of Louis I. John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, was a central figure in these conflicts until his own assassination on September 10, 1419. The assassination occurred on the bridge of Montereau during a supposed peace meeting with the Dauphin, Charles VII.
Assassination of John the Fearless, on the Bridge of Montereau in 1419, detail of 1470s miniature. Wikimedia Commons
As the meeting unfolded, one of Charles’s men suddenly shouted “Kill! Kill!” and delivered a fatal axe blow to John’s face. The ensuing chaos led to John’s death, and some accounts describe how his right hand was severed, a symbolic echo of the mutilation inflicted on Louis I, his rival. John’s death further deepened the divisions within France and continued the cycle of violence and retribution among the French nobility.
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6. The Murder of Philip of Swabia
Philip of Swabia was the King of Germany from 1198 to 1208, a period marked by intense political and military struggle to secure his throne. However, on June 21, 1208, while visiting Bamberg for his niece’s wedding, Philip met a violent end. His former supporter, Count Otto VIII of Wittelsbach, was enraged after Philip rejected his marriage proposal for one of the king’s daughters.
Murder of Philip – Wikimedia Commons
In a dramatic betrayal, Otto and his men confronted Philip in his bedroom and fatally attacked him. Otto cut Philip’s throat with his sword, and after the king fell to the ground, Otto fled the scene. It took almost a year for the authorities to locate and capture Otto. He was executed, his head thrown into the Danube River, and his body left to decompose for seven years before it was finally buried.
7. The Killing of James I of Scotland
James I of Scotland endured 18 years of imprisonment in England before ransoming his freedom and returning to a kingdom in disarray. Once back in Scotland, he faced resistance from powerful nobles accustomed to ruling without a king. On the night of February 20, 1437, his uncle and former ally, Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl, led a brutal coup against him.
A group of thirty men stormed the residence in Perth where James and his Queen were staying. James attempted to escape through a sewer tunnel, only to find it blocked. He was eventually captured and murdered. The Queen managed to flee, and their six-year-old son, James II, was installed as the new king. Walter Stewart was captured and subjected to a gruesome execution, which included torture by red-hot iron pincers and the burning of his entrails before he was finally killed.
8. The Assassination of Charles I, Count of Flanders
Charles the Good was Count of Flanders from 1119 to 1127, known for his just rule and efforts to curb the power of the local nobility. On March 2, 1127, the Erembald family and other nobles, fearing that Charles was about to strip them of their lands and influence, conspired to murder him.
Murder of Charles – BnF MS Français 2813, fol. 206 v
In a shocking act of betrayal, Charles was attacked while at church in Bruges. Chronicler Galbert of Bruges provides a dramatic account of the scene:
those wretched traitors, already murderers at heart, slew the count, who was struck down with swords and run through again and again, while he was praying devoutly and giving alms, humbly kneeling before the Divine Majesty.
Charles’s murder led to a brutal civil war in Flanders. In the aftermath, most of those involved in the plot were hunted down and executed, marking a dramatic end to their treacherous conspiracy.
9. The Death of Nikephoros II Phokas, Byzantine Emperor
Nikephoros II Phokas was the Byzantine Emperor from 963 to 969, celebrated for his military successes and efforts to restore the Empire’s former glory. His reign was marked by significant victories against the Arabs and the recovery of lost territories. However, behind the scenes, a deadly conspiracy was brewing that would ultimately lead to his downfall.
The plot against Nikephoros was orchestrated by his own wife, Theophano, and his nephew and general, John Tzimiskes. Theophano and John had been having an affair, and together they conspired to murder the emperor and seize the throne for themselves. Their plan was both intricate and ruthless, involving careful manipulation and covert operations.
On December 10, 969, the conspirators executed their plan. They managed to smuggle a group of assassins into the imperial palace in Constantinople, hiding them within the palace’s inner sanctum. As Nikephoros slept in his bedroom, the assassins, led by John Tzimiskes, launched their attack. The History of Leo the Deacon provides a detailed and vivid account of the assassination:
When Nikephoros was awakened and propped his head on his elbow, Leo, called Balantes, struck him violently with his sword. And the emperor, in severe pain from the wound for the sword struck his brow and eyelid, crushing the bone, but not injuring the brain, cried out in a very loud voice, “Help me, O Mother of God!”; and he was covered all over with blood and stained with red. John, sitting on the imperial bed, ordered them to drag the emperor over…saying, “Tell me, you most ungrateful and malicious tyrant, wasn’t it through me that you attained the Roman rule and received such power? Why then did you disregard such a good turn, and driven, by envy and evil frenzy, did not hesitate to remove me, your benefactor, from the command of the troops? Instead you dismissed me to waste my time in the countryside with peasants, like some alien without any rights, even through I am more brave and vigorous than you; the armies of the enemy fear me, and there is no one who can save you from my hands. Speak then, if you have any grounds of defense remaining against these charges.”
The emperor, who was already growing faint and did no have anyone to defend him, kept calling on the Mother of God for assistance. But John grabbed hold of his beard and pulled it mercilessly, while his fellow conspirators cruelly and inhumanely smashed his jaws with their sword handles so as to shake loose his teeth and knock them out of the jawbone. When they had their fill of tormenting him, John kicked him in the chest, raised up his sword, and drove it right through the middle of his brain…
John would go on to rule the Byzantine Empire for another six years, while Nikephoros was buried. An inscription carved on the side of his tomb reads: “You conquered all but a woman.”
10. The Murder of Vaclav I, Duke of Bohemia
On September 28, 929, a dark chapter in Czech history unfolded when Boleslav, Duke of Bohemia, betrayed and murdered his own brother, Vaclav I. The assassination was meticulously planned and executed, driven by Boleslav’s ambition to seize control of the Duchy of Bohemia for himself.
Vaclav I
According to the Czech chronicler Cosmas of Prague, Boleslav deceitfully invited Vaclav to a feast under the pretense of reconciliation. However, his true intention was to murder his brother and claim the title of Duke. Cosmas of Prague describes the treacherous act:
He deceitfully invited his brother to a feast where he schemed instead to kill him in order to seize control of the realm.
At the feast, Boleslav and his conspirators attacked Vaclav, killing him in cold blood. This heinous act secured Boleslav’s position as Duke, allowing him to rule Bohemia for the next 35 years.
In a grim twist of fate, Boleslav’s wife gave birth to a son on the day of the assassination, whom they named Strachkvas. This name translates to “Terrifying Feast,” a chilling reminder of the betrayal that secured Boleslav’s power.
Vaclav I, despite being murdered by his brother, was later canonized as a saint and is remembered as “Good King Wenceslas”. His legacy as a martyr and a symbol of virtue endures in Czech history and culture to this day.
The assassinations of the Middle Ages were not just brutal acts of violence but pivotal moments that shaped the course of history. From the martyrdom of Thomas Becket to the betrayal of Vaclav I, each assassination was driven by complex motivations of power, politics, and personal ambition. These events not only ended lives but also sparked revolutions, realignments of power, and deepened historical legacies. As we reflect on these dark chapters, we gain a deeper understanding of how the turbulent medieval period forged the world we live in today. Whether through the rise of new rulers or the fall of old dynasties, these ten infamous assassinations remind us of the often violent intersection of fate and power in shaping historical destinies.
The Middle Ages were a time of intense political intrigue, ruthless power struggles, and dramatic betrayals. Among the most shocking events of this era were the assassinations that changed the course of history. From kings and dukes to influential clergy, no one was safe from the deadly schemes of their enemies. In this article, we delve into the top 10 most notorious medieval assassinations, uncovering the stories behind these historic murders that shaped the course of the Middle Ages.
1. The Murder of Thomas Becket
With the famous line, “Who will rid me of this troublesome priest?”, King Henry II unintentionally set into motion the most famous assassination in English history. By 1170, the King had been in a bitter conflict with his former friend and now Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket. Near the end of the year, the King was so displeased with Becket’s actions that he muttered these words (or something similar), and four knights—Reginald fitzUrse, Hugh de Morville, William de Tracy, and Richard le Breton—interpreted it as a royal command and set out to confront the Archbishop.
On December 29, 1170, they entered the cathedral and, in the words of an eyewitness:
The wicked knight leapt suddenly upon him, cutting off the top of the crown which the unction of sacred chrism had dedicated to God. Next, he received a second blow on the head, but still he stood firm and immovable. At the third blow, he fell on his knees and elbows, offering himself a living sacrifice, and saying in a low voice, ‘For the name of Jesus and the protection of the Church, I am ready to embrace death.’ But the third knight inflicted a terrible wound as he lay prostrate. By this stroke, the crown of his head was separated from the head in such a way that the blood white with the brain, and the brain no less red from the blood, dyed the floor of the cathedral. The same clerk who had entered with the knights placed his foot on the neck of the holy priest and precious martyr, and, horrible to relate, scattered the brains and blood about the pavements, crying to the others, ‘Let us away, knights; this fellow will arise no more.’
2. Giuliano de’ Medici and the Pazzi Conspiracy
The Pazzi conspiracy was a bold and treacherous attempt to overthrow the powerful Medici family and seize control of Florence. Orchestrated by the Pazzi, another influential Florentine family, the plot included high-profile co-conspirators, such as Pope Sixtus IV. Their objective was to eliminate Lorenzo de’ Medici and his brother Giuliano de’ Medici, thereby crippling the Medici hold on the city.
On Sunday, April 26, 1478, the conspirators made their move during High Mass at the Duomo, in front of a congregation of 10,000. The assassination attempt was brutal and swift: Giuliano was stabbed 19 times and bled to death on the cathedral floor. Lorenzo, however, managed to escape with injuries.
The aftermath of the failed assassination was chaotic and violent. The citizens of Florence, loyal to the Medici, rose up in anger. The assassins were swiftly apprehended and killed by furious mobs. The Pazzi family and their supporters faced merciless retribution, being hunted down and destroyed. In the wake of the conspiracy, Lorenzo de’ Medici emerged stronger and more influential than ever, solidifying his family’s dominance over Florence.
3. The Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat
The Nizari Ismailis, a Shia sect based in Syria and Persia, had a formidable reputation as the best assassins in the Middle Ages. Known as the Hashishin, their name gradually evolved into the modern word “assassin.” Numerous killings across the Middle East were attributed to this group, including the murder of Conrad of Montferrat on April 28, 1192.
Conrad had just been elected as the next King of Jerusalem when he was assassinated. The chronicler Ambroise recounts the scene vividly: Conrad, in good spirits after dining with the Bishop of Beauvais, was walking when:
as he went on his way, happy, two young men, without cloaks, carrying two knives, came running up to him, striking him in his body as they ran up, so that he fell … Of those who had betrayed him, one was killed straight away, the other took refuge in a church, but this was no use to him, for he was seized and dragged until he was dead.
The Ismailis were blamed for Conrad’s assassination, but this wasn’t the only instance where they were accused without concrete evidence. It is possible they were used as scapegoats for other perpetrators. Rumors even suggested that Richard I, King of England, was involved in the plot, as he opposed Conrad’s ascension to power in the crusader state.
4. The Slaying of Louis I, Duke of Orléans
Louis I, Duke of Orléans, was the younger brother of French King Charles VI, who suffered from a severe mental illness. In a power struggle for control of the kingdom, Louis clashed with John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. Despite a peace agreement reached between the two rivals on November 20, 1407, the truce was short-lived. Just three days later, on November 23, John orchestrated a brutal assassination of Louis in the streets of Paris.
On that fateful day, 15 masked men ambushed Louis in a public square, where they attacked him with ruthless violence. The assassination was both a political maneuver and a personal vendetta, dramatically shifting the balance of power in France. Louis was killed in broad daylight, an act that ignited further conflict between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs.
5. The Death of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy
The power struggles of medieval France were far from over with the death of Louis I. John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, was a central figure in these conflicts until his own assassination on September 10, 1419. The assassination occurred on the bridge of Montereau during a supposed peace meeting with the Dauphin, Charles VII.
As the meeting unfolded, one of Charles’s men suddenly shouted “Kill! Kill!” and delivered a fatal axe blow to John’s face. The ensuing chaos led to John’s death, and some accounts describe how his right hand was severed, a symbolic echo of the mutilation inflicted on Louis I, his rival. John’s death further deepened the divisions within France and continued the cycle of violence and retribution among the French nobility.
6. The Murder of Philip of Swabia
Philip of Swabia was the King of Germany from 1198 to 1208, a period marked by intense political and military struggle to secure his throne. However, on June 21, 1208, while visiting Bamberg for his niece’s wedding, Philip met a violent end. His former supporter, Count Otto VIII of Wittelsbach, was enraged after Philip rejected his marriage proposal for one of the king’s daughters.
In a dramatic betrayal, Otto and his men confronted Philip in his bedroom and fatally attacked him. Otto cut Philip’s throat with his sword, and after the king fell to the ground, Otto fled the scene. It took almost a year for the authorities to locate and capture Otto. He was executed, his head thrown into the Danube River, and his body left to decompose for seven years before it was finally buried.
7. The Killing of James I of Scotland
James I of Scotland endured 18 years of imprisonment in England before ransoming his freedom and returning to a kingdom in disarray. Once back in Scotland, he faced resistance from powerful nobles accustomed to ruling without a king. On the night of February 20, 1437, his uncle and former ally, Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl, led a brutal coup against him.
A group of thirty men stormed the residence in Perth where James and his Queen were staying. James attempted to escape through a sewer tunnel, only to find it blocked. He was eventually captured and murdered. The Queen managed to flee, and their six-year-old son, James II, was installed as the new king. Walter Stewart was captured and subjected to a gruesome execution, which included torture by red-hot iron pincers and the burning of his entrails before he was finally killed.
8. The Assassination of Charles I, Count of Flanders
Charles the Good was Count of Flanders from 1119 to 1127, known for his just rule and efforts to curb the power of the local nobility. On March 2, 1127, the Erembald family and other nobles, fearing that Charles was about to strip them of their lands and influence, conspired to murder him.
In a shocking act of betrayal, Charles was attacked while at church in Bruges. Chronicler Galbert of Bruges provides a dramatic account of the scene:
those wretched traitors, already murderers at heart, slew the count, who was struck down with swords and run through again and again, while he was praying devoutly and giving alms, humbly kneeling before the Divine Majesty.
Charles’s murder led to a brutal civil war in Flanders. In the aftermath, most of those involved in the plot were hunted down and executed, marking a dramatic end to their treacherous conspiracy.
9. The Death of Nikephoros II Phokas, Byzantine Emperor
Nikephoros II Phokas was the Byzantine Emperor from 963 to 969, celebrated for his military successes and efforts to restore the Empire’s former glory. His reign was marked by significant victories against the Arabs and the recovery of lost territories. However, behind the scenes, a deadly conspiracy was brewing that would ultimately lead to his downfall.
The plot against Nikephoros was orchestrated by his own wife, Theophano, and his nephew and general, John Tzimiskes. Theophano and John had been having an affair, and together they conspired to murder the emperor and seize the throne for themselves. Their plan was both intricate and ruthless, involving careful manipulation and covert operations.
On December 10, 969, the conspirators executed their plan. They managed to smuggle a group of assassins into the imperial palace in Constantinople, hiding them within the palace’s inner sanctum. As Nikephoros slept in his bedroom, the assassins, led by John Tzimiskes, launched their attack. The History of Leo the Deacon provides a detailed and vivid account of the assassination:
When Nikephoros was awakened and propped his head on his elbow, Leo, called Balantes, struck him violently with his sword. And the emperor, in severe pain from the wound for the sword struck his brow and eyelid, crushing the bone, but not injuring the brain, cried out in a very loud voice, “Help me, O Mother of God!”; and he was covered all over with blood and stained with red. John, sitting on the imperial bed, ordered them to drag the emperor over…saying, “Tell me, you most ungrateful and malicious tyrant, wasn’t it through me that you attained the Roman rule and received such power? Why then did you disregard such a good turn, and driven, by envy and evil frenzy, did not hesitate to remove me, your benefactor, from the command of the troops? Instead you dismissed me to waste my time in the countryside with peasants, like some alien without any rights, even through I am more brave and vigorous than you; the armies of the enemy fear me, and there is no one who can save you from my hands. Speak then, if you have any grounds of defense remaining against these charges.”
The emperor, who was already growing faint and did no have anyone to defend him, kept calling on the Mother of God for assistance. But John grabbed hold of his beard and pulled it mercilessly, while his fellow conspirators cruelly and inhumanely smashed his jaws with their sword handles so as to shake loose his teeth and knock them out of the jawbone. When they had their fill of tormenting him, John kicked him in the chest, raised up his sword, and drove it right through the middle of his brain…
John would go on to rule the Byzantine Empire for another six years, while Nikephoros was buried. An inscription carved on the side of his tomb reads: “You conquered all but a woman.”
10. The Murder of Vaclav I, Duke of Bohemia
On September 28, 929, a dark chapter in Czech history unfolded when Boleslav, Duke of Bohemia, betrayed and murdered his own brother, Vaclav I. The assassination was meticulously planned and executed, driven by Boleslav’s ambition to seize control of the Duchy of Bohemia for himself.
According to the Czech chronicler Cosmas of Prague, Boleslav deceitfully invited Vaclav to a feast under the pretense of reconciliation. However, his true intention was to murder his brother and claim the title of Duke. Cosmas of Prague describes the treacherous act:
He deceitfully invited his brother to a feast where he schemed instead to kill him in order to seize control of the realm.
At the feast, Boleslav and his conspirators attacked Vaclav, killing him in cold blood. This heinous act secured Boleslav’s position as Duke, allowing him to rule Bohemia for the next 35 years.
In a grim twist of fate, Boleslav’s wife gave birth to a son on the day of the assassination, whom they named Strachkvas. This name translates to “Terrifying Feast,” a chilling reminder of the betrayal that secured Boleslav’s power.
Vaclav I, despite being murdered by his brother, was later canonized as a saint and is remembered as “Good King Wenceslas”. His legacy as a martyr and a symbol of virtue endures in Czech history and culture to this day.
The assassinations of the Middle Ages were not just brutal acts of violence but pivotal moments that shaped the course of history. From the martyrdom of Thomas Becket to the betrayal of Vaclav I, each assassination was driven by complex motivations of power, politics, and personal ambition. These events not only ended lives but also sparked revolutions, realignments of power, and deepened historical legacies. As we reflect on these dark chapters, we gain a deeper understanding of how the turbulent medieval period forged the world we live in today. Whether through the rise of new rulers or the fall of old dynasties, these ten infamous assassinations remind us of the often violent intersection of fate and power in shaping historical destinies.
Top Image: British Library MS Add. 38116 fol.13
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