Discover how medieval knights balanced physical fitness and spiritual holiness in the High Middle Ages, reshaping the ideal male body. Explore the evolution of masculine virtues through the lens of chivalry, monastic influence, and the crusades.
By Lorris Chevalier
In the twelfth century, a profound shift occurred in the understanding of holiness, particularly concerning the male body. This transformative period, often referred to as the “Second Medieval Renaissance” (the first being the Carolingian), witnessed not only a revival of classical knowledge but also a reevaluation of religious and societal norms. Among the significant changes was the emergence of a new masculine model of holiness that likened the male body to a sacred fortress—one to be guarded, protected, and disciplined.
Before the twelfth century and since the Fathers of the Church, the bodily ideal as a path to holiness had been asceticism, involving the refusal of food and constant suffering. The rejection was not only of good food but also of food itself. However, this model faced a pragmatic problem in the face of the Crusades.
The knight had to be in good health for combat while also on the path to holiness. Asceticism even became a sin so that the knight would be in good shape and willing to carry out God’s fight.
Additionally, the secular lord, being economically superior, was obliged by secular tradition to hold banquets during which the meal was opulent. This was a sign of his temporal power, and to deny it would be to deny the place that God had allocated to him in society. Thus, there existed an apparent dilemma between moral dietary asceticism and the refined and numerous dishes of banquets due to secular dignity.
The answer came under the pen and cry of the preacher, who used the allegory of the castle as an image of the ideal male body at the time of the implementation of the Gregorian Reforms and the evolution of chivalric ethics, harmonizing secular values and moral virtues.
The Castle Metaphor
The twelfth-century mindset, deeply influenced by Christian theology, saw the body as the vessel for the soul, and its proper care was considered crucial for spiritual well-being. The castle, a symbol of strength, resilience, and defence, provided a fitting analogy for the meticulous maintenance required for the sanctity of the male body.
Men were expected to maintain their bodies, build muscle, and be physically superior to others. However, women were expected to be kept in frail and small bodies. Men had to increase their domain to subjugate others through their presence. In the High Middle Ages, men had to externally testify to the virtues they bore. If they were well disposed by their virtues, bodies, and clothes, they corresponded well to the ideal of the Christian knight.
British Library MS Egerton 3028 fol.1 08
Maintaining the household was the lord’s main concern. Managerial studies and concern for the growth of his field were at the heart of his education. Preachers thus projected common images to the lord, telling them that the first duty in the theological sense was that of the body. The body had to perfect the state of the lord’s soul. Far from plunging into asceticism and a dry diet, the medieval lord was called upon to have a body worthy of his function. He had to maintain it through his secular activities (hunting, horseback riding) for a more religious goal: the crusade, where the body would be put to the test.
The castle was also an image of the house that stood out from the others. Distinction was a secular quality that preachers emphasized in their sermons to clarify the responsibility lords had towards the common people. Thus, everyone looked at the castle at the top of a hill, with its high towers facing the sky and imposing its power. The body of the lord could not be frail and soft but had to be strong and straight. Fortitude and righteousness of spirit had to be incarnated in the body of the lord to be better inscribed in his soul.
Monastic Influence and Contemplative Practices
Monastic communities played a significant role in shaping the evolving model of masculine body holiness. Monks, dedicated to a life of prayer and contemplation, sought to strengthen their bodies through a disciplined routine. The monastic emphasis on self-reflection and spiritual introspection further influenced the perception of the male body as a sacred space requiring constant vigilance against worldly distractions.
In the twelfth century, it was considered that a man would be resurrected with the same body and clothing with which he was buried. It was therefore a duty for a faithful person to die with a body worthy of the glorious body that God would give to everyone at the Resurrection.
Monastic communities preaching dietary asceticism frightened banquet lovers in their sermons. The glutton would eternally suffer the punishments of Hell.
Gluttony was a favourite subject of preachers who, especially in monastic circles, opposed the hypocrisy of certain monks. Humbert de Romans, a leading French friar, wrote of an “example, in the Dialogues of Gregory, of Theodore, a gluttonous monk, who ate in secret while displaying great austerity. Having fallen ill, he began to cry out in his last moments that the devil was swallowing his soul like a dragon, that he had already tied his feet and knees, he was swallowing his soul, and his face was now in his mouth. Saying these words, he died.”
For the Cistercian monk Galand de Reigny, feasts were an allegory of life in sin. The loss of freedom obtained through gluttony was a sin. Prudence had to prevent sin; through it, the good knight always had to watch. “The glutton even swallows food which he knows causes death; the abstainer rejects even foods that are certainly harmless,” Garland wrote. “He who cheerfully eats mortal food, that is to say, delights in sin, is a glutton. The holy man, like the abstinent wise man, flees all illicit things to such an extent that he even abstains from certain permissible things.”
Gluttony as a young man seated at a full table and vomiting, with an inscription above ‘gloutonnie’. British Library MS Add. 54180, fol. 188v
At the time, preachers were offended by the sin of gluttony, seeing it as a great source of sin. The legislative code Siete Partidas, compiled at the court of Alfonso X of Castile, reminded knights of moderation in drinking and eating. Food austerity allowed for greater endurance in war. Meanwhile, when Louis IX spoke to the young Jean de Joinville about moderation in drinking, the French king noted “it was too ugly a thing for a valiant man to get drunk.”
Humbert de Romans also offered this little story as well:
Being overweight predisposes to many ailments. This is why, to a fat man who made fun of a scrawny cleric and said to him: “Sir cleric, you seem to have come out of hell! “, the clerk replied: “And you seem to be going there!”
The monastic world greatly influenced lay lords, especially how they saw their own bodies, at a time when these same lords were trained by monks and often took on the habit of a religious order on their deathbed, as if the path to excellence only passed through bodily asceticism.
Discipline and Asceticism
Central to this evolving model of holiness was the emphasis on discipline and ascetic practices. The male body was to be subjected to rigorous training and self-control, mirroring the knight’s preparation for battle in his castle. Asceticism, involving practices such as fasting, celibacy, and physical mortification, became increasingly popular among religious figures and laymen alike. The idea was to fortify the body against the temptations of the flesh and to strengthen the spirit within.
Thus, the training of lay lords and sometimes kings (Abbot Suger teaching Louis VII) allowed the lord to understand the ideal monastic way of life. Often, lords like William the Conqueror took monastic habits on their deathbed, but by the end of the twelfth century, the practice seemed to be reduced. The Book of Miracles of Peter the Venerable recorded numerous miracles of the holiness of the lay lord. Thus, the lords understood that monastic asceticism could be integrated into the secular discipline of a lay life. Even better, it could perfect it.
Bibliothèque nationale de France MS Français 2063, fol. 1r.
Chivalric Virtues and Holiness
For God one must take bravery and vigour To go against this perilous world ~ Hugues de Berzé
The rise of chivalry during the twelfth century further contributed to the development of the masculine model of holiness. Chivalric virtues, such as courage, loyalty, and honour, were not only essential on the battlefield but were also seen as virtues crucial for spiritual combat. The chivalric ethic became intertwined with religious ideals, creating a holistic approach to masculinity that embraced both the physical and the spiritual dimensions.
The works of Chrétien de Troyes paved the way for a model of prudhomme that the secular lords had to look up to. As Jean Dufournet explians prudhomme could be defined as “whose qualities fell, some from the epic space of the Chanson de geste (courage, impassionedness in the face of death, physical strength, endurance, loyalty to the overlord, to the word given, and to friendship, sense of honour), others to the courtly space of the novel (intellectual culture, largesse, generosity, irreproachable behaviour based on exemplary morality, refinement of morals, sociability), and the third to the Christian religious space (deep faith, piety, charity).”
This triptych is embodied in the head but also in the body of the prudent man at a time when pilgrimages flourished in the West, where faith certainly passed through the heart but also “through the feet.” In another sense, it is about “the combination of chivalric morality – courage, loyalty, fidelity – and Christian spirituality – redemption through suffering and sacrifice – testifying to the desire of the late epics to harmonize Christian doctrine and secular morality, and to introduce into history the divine sense.”
Sacred Warfare and the Crusades
Hugues de Berzé (d.1220), a knight and Crusader, cited the Templars as a model:
They surrender their bodies to the martyr, and defend the sweet country where the Lord God died and rose again
The concept of “Holy War” gained momentum during the twelfth century, particularly with the onset of the Crusades. This notion fused the idea of physical battle with spiritual warfare, reinforcing the castle metaphor. The male body was considered the frontline in the fight against sin and temptation, and the Crusader saw himself as a defender of not only earthly realms but also of heavenly virtues.
The Templars were considered the medieval body ideal in that they followed the monastic rhythm and asceticism of dietary restrictions while muscling their bodies for combat. However, a story is told by preachers of the time about one called “Lord Bread and Water.” This Templar refused to follow the rules of the Temple and, out of pride, applied himself to more intense abstinence. During a fight, he fell from his horse due to starvation, and since then, his story has been a model not to be followed.
The twelfth-century transformation of the masculine model of holiness marked a pivotal moment in the history of Christian spirituality. The metaphor of the body as a castle, with its emphasis on discipline, asceticism, and the integration of chivalric virtues, reshaped the way individuals perceived their physical and spiritual selves. This holistic approach to masculinity, deeply rooted in the religious and cultural context of the time, laid the foundation for subsequent developments in medieval Christian thought and practice.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon.
Top Image: Bibliothèque nationale de France MS Latin 5690, fol. 30r.
Discover how medieval knights balanced physical fitness and spiritual holiness in the High Middle Ages, reshaping the ideal male body. Explore the evolution of masculine virtues through the lens of chivalry, monastic influence, and the crusades.
By Lorris Chevalier
In the twelfth century, a profound shift occurred in the understanding of holiness, particularly concerning the male body. This transformative period, often referred to as the “Second Medieval Renaissance” (the first being the Carolingian), witnessed not only a revival of classical knowledge but also a reevaluation of religious and societal norms. Among the significant changes was the emergence of a new masculine model of holiness that likened the male body to a sacred fortress—one to be guarded, protected, and disciplined.
Before the twelfth century and since the Fathers of the Church, the bodily ideal as a path to holiness had been asceticism, involving the refusal of food and constant suffering. The rejection was not only of good food but also of food itself. However, this model faced a pragmatic problem in the face of the Crusades.
The knight had to be in good health for combat while also on the path to holiness. Asceticism even became a sin so that the knight would be in good shape and willing to carry out God’s fight.
Additionally, the secular lord, being economically superior, was obliged by secular tradition to hold banquets during which the meal was opulent. This was a sign of his temporal power, and to deny it would be to deny the place that God had allocated to him in society. Thus, there existed an apparent dilemma between moral dietary asceticism and the refined and numerous dishes of banquets due to secular dignity.
The answer came under the pen and cry of the preacher, who used the allegory of the castle as an image of the ideal male body at the time of the implementation of the Gregorian Reforms and the evolution of chivalric ethics, harmonizing secular values and moral virtues.
The Castle Metaphor
The twelfth-century mindset, deeply influenced by Christian theology, saw the body as the vessel for the soul, and its proper care was considered crucial for spiritual well-being. The castle, a symbol of strength, resilience, and defence, provided a fitting analogy for the meticulous maintenance required for the sanctity of the male body.
Men were expected to maintain their bodies, build muscle, and be physically superior to others. However, women were expected to be kept in frail and small bodies. Men had to increase their domain to subjugate others through their presence. In the High Middle Ages, men had to externally testify to the virtues they bore. If they were well disposed by their virtues, bodies, and clothes, they corresponded well to the ideal of the Christian knight.
Maintaining the household was the lord’s main concern. Managerial studies and concern for the growth of his field were at the heart of his education. Preachers thus projected common images to the lord, telling them that the first duty in the theological sense was that of the body. The body had to perfect the state of the lord’s soul. Far from plunging into asceticism and a dry diet, the medieval lord was called upon to have a body worthy of his function. He had to maintain it through his secular activities (hunting, horseback riding) for a more religious goal: the crusade, where the body would be put to the test.
The castle was also an image of the house that stood out from the others. Distinction was a secular quality that preachers emphasized in their sermons to clarify the responsibility lords had towards the common people. Thus, everyone looked at the castle at the top of a hill, with its high towers facing the sky and imposing its power. The body of the lord could not be frail and soft but had to be strong and straight. Fortitude and righteousness of spirit had to be incarnated in the body of the lord to be better inscribed in his soul.
Monastic Influence and Contemplative Practices
Monastic communities played a significant role in shaping the evolving model of masculine body holiness. Monks, dedicated to a life of prayer and contemplation, sought to strengthen their bodies through a disciplined routine. The monastic emphasis on self-reflection and spiritual introspection further influenced the perception of the male body as a sacred space requiring constant vigilance against worldly distractions.
In the twelfth century, it was considered that a man would be resurrected with the same body and clothing with which he was buried. It was therefore a duty for a faithful person to die with a body worthy of the glorious body that God would give to everyone at the Resurrection.
Monastic communities preaching dietary asceticism frightened banquet lovers in their sermons. The glutton would eternally suffer the punishments of Hell.
Gluttony was a favourite subject of preachers who, especially in monastic circles, opposed the hypocrisy of certain monks. Humbert de Romans, a leading French friar, wrote of an “example, in the Dialogues of Gregory, of Theodore, a gluttonous monk, who ate in secret while displaying great austerity. Having fallen ill, he began to cry out in his last moments that the devil was swallowing his soul like a dragon, that he had already tied his feet and knees, he was swallowing his soul, and his face was now in his mouth. Saying these words, he died.”
For the Cistercian monk Galand de Reigny, feasts were an allegory of life in sin. The loss of freedom obtained through gluttony was a sin. Prudence had to prevent sin; through it, the good knight always had to watch. “The glutton even swallows food which he knows causes death; the abstainer rejects even foods that are certainly harmless,” Garland wrote. “He who cheerfully eats mortal food, that is to say, delights in sin, is a glutton. The holy man, like the abstinent wise man, flees all illicit things to such an extent that he even abstains from certain permissible things.”
At the time, preachers were offended by the sin of gluttony, seeing it as a great source of sin. The legislative code Siete Partidas, compiled at the court of Alfonso X of Castile, reminded knights of moderation in drinking and eating. Food austerity allowed for greater endurance in war. Meanwhile, when Louis IX spoke to the young Jean de Joinville about moderation in drinking, the French king noted “it was too ugly a thing for a valiant man to get drunk.”
Humbert de Romans also offered this little story as well:
Being overweight predisposes to many ailments. This is why, to a fat man who made fun of a scrawny cleric and said to him: “Sir cleric, you seem to have come out of hell! “, the clerk replied: “And you seem to be going there!”
The monastic world greatly influenced lay lords, especially how they saw their own bodies, at a time when these same lords were trained by monks and often took on the habit of a religious order on their deathbed, as if the path to excellence only passed through bodily asceticism.
Discipline and Asceticism
Central to this evolving model of holiness was the emphasis on discipline and ascetic practices. The male body was to be subjected to rigorous training and self-control, mirroring the knight’s preparation for battle in his castle. Asceticism, involving practices such as fasting, celibacy, and physical mortification, became increasingly popular among religious figures and laymen alike. The idea was to fortify the body against the temptations of the flesh and to strengthen the spirit within.
Thus, the training of lay lords and sometimes kings (Abbot Suger teaching Louis VII) allowed the lord to understand the ideal monastic way of life. Often, lords like William the Conqueror took monastic habits on their deathbed, but by the end of the twelfth century, the practice seemed to be reduced. The Book of Miracles of Peter the Venerable recorded numerous miracles of the holiness of the lay lord. Thus, the lords understood that monastic asceticism could be integrated into the secular discipline of a lay life. Even better, it could perfect it.
Chivalric Virtues and Holiness
For God one must take bravery and vigour
To go against this perilous world ~ Hugues de Berzé
The rise of chivalry during the twelfth century further contributed to the development of the masculine model of holiness. Chivalric virtues, such as courage, loyalty, and honour, were not only essential on the battlefield but were also seen as virtues crucial for spiritual combat. The chivalric ethic became intertwined with religious ideals, creating a holistic approach to masculinity that embraced both the physical and the spiritual dimensions.
The works of Chrétien de Troyes paved the way for a model of prudhomme that the secular lords had to look up to. As Jean Dufournet explians prudhomme could be defined as “whose qualities fell, some from the epic space of the Chanson de geste (courage, impassionedness in the face of death, physical strength, endurance, loyalty to the overlord, to the word given, and to friendship, sense of honour), others to the courtly space of the novel (intellectual culture, largesse, generosity, irreproachable behaviour based on exemplary morality, refinement of morals, sociability), and the third to the Christian religious space (deep faith, piety, charity).”
This triptych is embodied in the head but also in the body of the prudent man at a time when pilgrimages flourished in the West, where faith certainly passed through the heart but also “through the feet.” In another sense, it is about “the combination of chivalric morality – courage, loyalty, fidelity – and Christian spirituality – redemption through suffering and sacrifice – testifying to the desire of the late epics to harmonize Christian doctrine and secular morality, and to introduce into history the divine sense.”
Sacred Warfare and the Crusades
Hugues de Berzé (d.1220), a knight and Crusader, cited the Templars as a model:
They surrender their bodies to the martyr,
and defend the sweet country
where the Lord God died and rose again
The concept of “Holy War” gained momentum during the twelfth century, particularly with the onset of the Crusades. This notion fused the idea of physical battle with spiritual warfare, reinforcing the castle metaphor. The male body was considered the frontline in the fight against sin and temptation, and the Crusader saw himself as a defender of not only earthly realms but also of heavenly virtues.
The Templars were considered the medieval body ideal in that they followed the monastic rhythm and asceticism of dietary restrictions while muscling their bodies for combat. However, a story is told by preachers of the time about one called “Lord Bread and Water.” This Templar refused to follow the rules of the Temple and, out of pride, applied himself to more intense abstinence. During a fight, he fell from his horse due to starvation, and since then, his story has been a model not to be followed.
The twelfth-century transformation of the masculine model of holiness marked a pivotal moment in the history of Christian spirituality. The metaphor of the body as a castle, with its emphasis on discipline, asceticism, and the integration of chivalric virtues, reshaped the way individuals perceived their physical and spiritual selves. This holistic approach to masculinity, deeply rooted in the religious and cultural context of the time, laid the foundation for subsequent developments in medieval Christian thought and practice.
Dr Lorris Chevalier, who has a Ph.D. in medieval literature, is a historical advisor for movies, including The Last Duel and Napoleon.
Top Image: Bibliothèque nationale de France MS Latin 5690, fol. 30r.
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