Medieval kingdoms and empires often went by names very different from the ones we use today. These original names reveal how people of the time viewed their realms and the world around them.
Throughout the medieval period, the names of many states evolved in response to shifting borders, cultures, and political dynamics. The countries we recognize today often bore very different names in the past, but modern historians have chosen to rename them, usually to make it easier to differentiate them. Here are some examples of what medieval states really called themselves.
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The Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was at its height during the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century CE – Wikimedia Commons
While the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century, the Eastern half continued on. Today, it is typically called the Byzantine Empire, but no one living in that empire called themselves that. In fact, they saw themselves as Romans (Rhomaioi), viewing their state as the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire. They would call their territory Romania, meaning Romanland. Their Arabic neighbours also referred to them as Romans, using the term Rūm.
However, Western Europeans increasingly began referring to this empire as Greek instead of Roman. This was something of a negative slur, used in a way to delegitimize their claim as being the Roman Empire (as you will soon see, a lot of people saw themselves as the inheritors of the Roman legacy).
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After the fall of Constantinople and the end of their empire in the 15th century, Western historians came up with several names for their state, including the Empire of the Greeks, the Low Empire, and the Empire of Constantinople. Eventually, they called it the Byzantine Empire because one of the names for the city of Constantinople was Byzantion.
Interestingly, when the empire was conquered by Western Europeans during the Fourth Crusade, they came up with their own name for the state: Imperium Constantinopolitanum, which means ‘Constantinopolitan Empire.’ The locals called them either Frankokratia (Rule of the Franks) or Latinokratia (Rule of the Latins). Today, this state, which only lasted from 1204 to 1261, is called by historians the ‘Latin Empire of Constantinople.’
France
France depicted in 1535 version of Ptolemy’s 3rd European Map
The name France comes from Francia, or Land of the Franks. It was only around the 12th century that the name of its people changed from Franks to French.
Historians have created names for different eras of this state, including the Merovingian Kingdom and the Carolingian Empire. Charlemagne and the other Carolingian rulers actually saw themselves as a continuation of the Roman Empire, and their state had names such as Romanum imperium (‘Roman Empire’), Romanorum sive Francorum imperium (Empire of the Romans and Franks) and Universum Regnum (‘The Whole Kingdom’).
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The Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD – Wikimedia Commons
Otto I was crowned Emperor of the Romans in 962, and he and his successors also saw themselves as ruling the Roman Empire. It was not until 1157 that we see Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa starting to use the name “Holy” when referring to his state. By the 13th century this state was increasingly called the Holy Roman Empire, but that was not its formal name until 1512. Meanwhile, the German residents of this empire usually just called it the Reich.
The British Isles
One of the earliest surviving copies of Ptolemy’s 2nd century map of the British Isles. Originally published in Ptolemy’s Geographia. This is the second issue of the 1482 map, also printed at Ulm, which was the first woodcut map of the British Isles and the first to be printed outside Italy. Photo courtesy National Library of Wales / Wikimedia Commons
The names of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland all emerged during the Middle Ages, but they often went by different names. In England, the medieval name was originally Englaland, meaning “land of the Angles.” This term reflected the Germanic tribe that had settled in Britain starting in the 5th century. Over time, as the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms unified under kings like Alfred the Great, the term evolved into England, the name we use today.
Before the English conquest of Wales in the 13th century, this region was made up of several smaller states that went by the names of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth. During the Middle Ages, Welsh people usually referred to themselves as Cymry—this name has been translated as Cambrian.
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The Kingdom of Scotland was originally known as Alba in Gaelic and Scotia in Latin. The name Scotland emerged during the High Middle Ages. Meanwhile, Ireland was often also called Scotia by Latin writers, meaning ‘Land of the Scots.’ Even their rulers had titles such as Imperator Scottorum. The name Ireland only emerged when their neighbours started calling themselves Scotland.
Mongol Empire
A map of the Mongol Empire at its greatest extent, showing capitals and major cities. Map by Arienne King at World History Encyclopedia
Chinggis Khan established what we call the Mongol Empire, but he and his successors called it yeke Mongγol ulus, which means ‘Nation of the Great Mongols.’ In Turkic it was called kür uluγ ulus, which means ‘Whole Great Nation.’ As this empire split into smaller empires, they got their own names. The Mongols who ruled over western Asia and Russia called their state Ulug Ulus, which means Great State in Turkic. Some contemporary historians called their land Ulus of Jochi or ‘Realm of Jochi.’ The name we know today as The Golden Horde was only coined in the 16th century.
After Kubilai Khan conquered China, he called his empire Dai Yuan or Dai Ön Ulus, which means Great Yuan. Meanwhile, the Mongols who created the Ilkhanate, which ruled much of the Middle East, called their state Hülegü Ulus (‘State of Hülegü’) after its first ruler. However, the most common name for it was just Iran.
Other States
The city-state of Venice was initially known as the Duchy of Venice (Ducatus Venetiae). Initially something of a Byzantine outpost, it developed into a powerful maritime republic. By the High Middle Ages, it was called the Most Serene Republic of Venice (Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia).
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The Kingdom of Bohemia, known today as part of the Czech Republic, was originally called Čechy in the native language, and Regnum Bohemiae in Latin, named after the Celtic Boii tribe that once lived there. The Slavic Czechs dominated the region, and while the Latin name Bohemia persisted through the medieval period, the name Čechy remained common in the native tongue.
The Kingdom of Poland derived its name from the Polans, a West Slavic tribe. It was originally called Polska or Regnum Poloniae in Latin. Over time, as the kingdom grew in prominence, the name Poland became the standard, though its people continued to use Polska in the native language.
In Hungary, the medieval state was known as Regnum Hungariae in Latin and Magyarország in Hungarian. The kingdom was founded in 1000 AD by Stephen I, and the Latin name Hungaria eventually evolved into Hungary in English. However, Hungarians have always referred to their country as Magyarország, meaning “Land of the Magyars.”
The Kingdom of Portugal began as the County of Portucale, a small territory centered around the city of Porto. After gaining independence from León in the 12th century, it became the Kingdom of Portugal, a name derived from its original Roman name, Portucale.
The Ottoman Empire was originally known as the Devlet-i ʿAliyye-i ʿOsmâniyye, which means ‘Sublime Ottoman State.’ The people of this empire usually referred to themselves as Rūmī, which again means ‘Roman.’ The term Türk was usually reserved for the peasantry.
Medieval kingdoms and empires often went by names very different from the ones we use today. These original names reveal how people of the time viewed their realms and the world around them.
Throughout the medieval period, the names of many states evolved in response to shifting borders, cultures, and political dynamics. The countries we recognize today often bore very different names in the past, but modern historians have chosen to rename them, usually to make it easier to differentiate them. Here are some examples of what medieval states really called themselves.
The Byzantine Empire
While the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century, the Eastern half continued on. Today, it is typically called the Byzantine Empire, but no one living in that empire called themselves that. In fact, they saw themselves as Romans (Rhomaioi), viewing their state as the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire. They would call their territory Romania, meaning Romanland. Their Arabic neighbours also referred to them as Romans, using the term Rūm.
However, Western Europeans increasingly began referring to this empire as Greek instead of Roman. This was something of a negative slur, used in a way to delegitimize their claim as being the Roman Empire (as you will soon see, a lot of people saw themselves as the inheritors of the Roman legacy).
After the fall of Constantinople and the end of their empire in the 15th century, Western historians came up with several names for their state, including the Empire of the Greeks, the Low Empire, and the Empire of Constantinople. Eventually, they called it the Byzantine Empire because one of the names for the city of Constantinople was Byzantion.
Interestingly, when the empire was conquered by Western Europeans during the Fourth Crusade, they came up with their own name for the state: Imperium Constantinopolitanum, which means ‘Constantinopolitan Empire.’ The locals called them either Frankokratia (Rule of the Franks) or Latinokratia (Rule of the Latins). Today, this state, which only lasted from 1204 to 1261, is called by historians the ‘Latin Empire of Constantinople.’
France
The name France comes from Francia, or Land of the Franks. It was only around the 12th century that the name of its people changed from Franks to French.
Historians have created names for different eras of this state, including the Merovingian Kingdom and the Carolingian Empire. Charlemagne and the other Carolingian rulers actually saw themselves as a continuation of the Roman Empire, and their state had names such as Romanum imperium (‘Roman Empire’), Romanorum sive Francorum imperium (Empire of the Romans and Franks) and Universum Regnum (‘The Whole Kingdom’).
The Holy Roman Empire
Otto I was crowned Emperor of the Romans in 962, and he and his successors also saw themselves as ruling the Roman Empire. It was not until 1157 that we see Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa starting to use the name “Holy” when referring to his state. By the 13th century this state was increasingly called the Holy Roman Empire, but that was not its formal name until 1512. Meanwhile, the German residents of this empire usually just called it the Reich.
The British Isles
The names of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland all emerged during the Middle Ages, but they often went by different names. In England, the medieval name was originally Englaland, meaning “land of the Angles.” This term reflected the Germanic tribe that had settled in Britain starting in the 5th century. Over time, as the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms unified under kings like Alfred the Great, the term evolved into England, the name we use today.
Before the English conquest of Wales in the 13th century, this region was made up of several smaller states that went by the names of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth. During the Middle Ages, Welsh people usually referred to themselves as Cymry—this name has been translated as Cambrian.
The Kingdom of Scotland was originally known as Alba in Gaelic and Scotia in Latin. The name Scotland emerged during the High Middle Ages. Meanwhile, Ireland was often also called Scotia by Latin writers, meaning ‘Land of the Scots.’ Even their rulers had titles such as Imperator Scottorum. The name Ireland only emerged when their neighbours started calling themselves Scotland.
Mongol Empire
Chinggis Khan established what we call the Mongol Empire, but he and his successors called it yeke Mongγol ulus, which means ‘Nation of the Great Mongols.’ In Turkic it was called kür uluγ ulus, which means ‘Whole Great Nation.’ As this empire split into smaller empires, they got their own names. The Mongols who ruled over western Asia and Russia called their state Ulug Ulus, which means Great State in Turkic. Some contemporary historians called their land Ulus of Jochi or ‘Realm of Jochi.’ The name we know today as The Golden Horde was only coined in the 16th century.
After Kubilai Khan conquered China, he called his empire Dai Yuan or Dai Ön Ulus, which means Great Yuan. Meanwhile, the Mongols who created the Ilkhanate, which ruled much of the Middle East, called their state Hülegü Ulus (‘State of Hülegü’) after its first ruler. However, the most common name for it was just Iran.
Other States
The city-state of Venice was initially known as the Duchy of Venice (Ducatus Venetiae). Initially something of a Byzantine outpost, it developed into a powerful maritime republic. By the High Middle Ages, it was called the Most Serene Republic of Venice (Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia).
The Kingdom of Bohemia, known today as part of the Czech Republic, was originally called Čechy in the native language, and Regnum Bohemiae in Latin, named after the Celtic Boii tribe that once lived there. The Slavic Czechs dominated the region, and while the Latin name Bohemia persisted through the medieval period, the name Čechy remained common in the native tongue.
The Kingdom of Poland derived its name from the Polans, a West Slavic tribe. It was originally called Polska or Regnum Poloniae in Latin. Over time, as the kingdom grew in prominence, the name Poland became the standard, though its people continued to use Polska in the native language.
In Hungary, the medieval state was known as Regnum Hungariae in Latin and Magyarország in Hungarian. The kingdom was founded in 1000 AD by Stephen I, and the Latin name Hungaria eventually evolved into Hungary in English. However, Hungarians have always referred to their country as Magyarország, meaning “Land of the Magyars.”
The Kingdom of Portugal began as the County of Portucale, a small territory centered around the city of Porto. After gaining independence from León in the 12th century, it became the Kingdom of Portugal, a name derived from its original Roman name, Portucale.
The Ottoman Empire was originally known as the Devlet-i ʿAliyye-i ʿOsmâniyye, which means ‘Sublime Ottoman State.’ The people of this empire usually referred to themselves as Rūmī, which again means ‘Roman.’ The term Türk was usually reserved for the peasantry.
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